Walk in 5 different levels of walking trials. Each trial has 3 conditions: (i) 2 testing boots and (ii) 1 pair of laboratory shoes.
Force platform 6-camera motion analysis system Reflective and tracking markers Gait walker and equalizer Laboratory shoes
600 Hz
Polyurethane outsole Polypropylene midsole Hard foam as the insole
GRF impact, ROM, and COM
Different heights of insole and material show initial impact from GRF peak. ROM is less significant during eversion and hip adduction for walking trials using gait walker. Kinematics frontal plane shows greater significance than sagittal plane.
Walk on a predetermined 10 m walkway with a self-selected number of 3- or 5-time trials.
3D (CT) scans 3D motion gait analysis of the lower extremity 6 digital cameras with a video 27 retroreflective markers
70 Hz
NM
Hip ROM
LL and OS restoration within 5 mm > control normalized walking LL/OS discrepancies > THA Healthy young = 45° Fit and healthy elderly = 35° Good postoperative gait = between 35° and 45°
Walk under 3 different conditions, wearing a combination of flat sandals with 6 trials: (1) Control: thick sandals bilaterally (2) Short limb: a thick sandal on the left foot and a thin sandal on the right foot (3) Long limb: a thin sandal on the left foot and a thick sandal on the right foot. Then, walk at self-selected speed.
12-camera motion capture system (Oqus 4, Qualisys), 6 force platforms (custom BP model, AMTI), marker, a pair of flat sandals (made of high-density ethylene vinyl acetate and were attached to the feet with Velcro™ (TM) straps)
1000 Hz
Sandals with high-density EVA
Fear foot dorsiflexion and inversion Ankle dorsiflexion Ankle inversion moments Knee flexion angle Knee flexion moment Knee adduction moment, Hip flexion angle Hip flexion moment Angle moment Pelvic ipsilateral
Kinematics mild LLD is of greater significance than non-LLD.
Stand in front of the CODA system. A static analysis of their relaxed standing posture was obtained (the static test). Gait analysis Then, walk at self-selected speed and walking velocity.
3-D gait analysis using a CODA MPX 30® analyzer Sole of one foot using pelite.
NM
Sole of pelite
Static standing tests: Pelvic obliquity of the long limb Knee flexion of the long limb Dynamic walking test: Pelvic obliquity Hip, knee, and ankle flexion Swing dynamic walking test: Hip, knee, and ankle flexion
Pelvic obliquity occurred between 2 cm and 3 cm of LLD. Significant changes during knee flexion occurred at 2 cm. Significant changes in kinematics for the stance phase of both legs during walking
Stand comfortably on a force platform with the knees extended and shoes removed and look ahead at a fixed object in a well-lit, quiet room. The foot angle was 12 from the sagittal plane, and the base width at the heels was 10 cm.
Force platform
100 Hz
Insole lift cork
Mean COP
ML position of the COP toward the longer leg shows changes occurring at 1 cm. LLD raise resulted to no increase in the shift towards the longer leg. Changes increase in ML. Magnitude of postural sway
Walking under 2 different conditions: (1) Control: wearing flat thick sandals on both limbs (2) Short limb: wearing flat thin sandal on the OA limb knee and a flat thick sandal on the contralateral limb. Subject walked at self-selected speed, performing 5 trials per condition along a 15 m distance.
12-camera motion capture system 6 force platform AMTI Forefoot and rearfoot markers Tracking markers
200 Hz
Sandals with high-density EVA attached with Velcro
Kinematics: Rearfoot dorsiflexion-plantar flexion inversion-eversion Knee and hip flexion-extension, adduction, and abduction Trunk flexion-extension Kinetics: Ankle, knee, and hip internal moments in the sagittal and frontal planes
Biomechanics of mild LLD affect the kinetics chain with moderate knee OA during stance phase. Shorter limb increased pelvic and trunk external rotation stance. Mild LLD with knee OA caused lower back pain. Longer limb: Rearfoot plantar flexion angle increased. Ankle plantar flexion moment increased. Reduced hip abduction angle.
Walk on a force platform with 5 trials along a 10 m walkway.
Total body dual energy Absorptiometry scans (DXA; Lunar DPX-IQ, Lunar Inc., Madison, WI, USA) Ruler 6 high-speed video cameras 2 force platforms Reflective markers
60 Hz
NM
BS plane joint angles, net joint moments, and joint powers in the hip, knee, and ankle
The right foot with either the WCSTM or the Wedge Shoe™ The left foot with either the TwinShoe or the normal shoe For each shoe condition, 6 were made trials—3 right steps and 3 left steps on the force plate were recorded.
3 types of shoes: Wound care shoe system (WCSTM) OrthoWedge Healing Shoe Twin shoes 6-camera motion analysis 2 force platforms Reflective markers
60 Hz
Surface material: Leather nylon mesh tissue Insole material: Plastazote, EVA, and poron Sole material: TPA
Kinetic: Joint angles, GRF, joint moments, step length, and single-support time as the average values
Elevated shoe/sole on the CL foot led to gait alterations. Significant difference at the frontal plane Elevation leg shows greater hip flexion. Lower side showed elongated hip extension. Therapeutic shoes have greater significant changes at the movement patterns and load in the lower extremity and lower back. Shoes with elevated soles on CL have greater significant changes in alteration of gait kinematics for LLD’s patience.
Measure subject’s leg length by using TMM. Artificial LLD was induced by using insoles at the left leg. Each subject would stand still in front of the radiographic device CTTT Then, measured using zebris FDM
WD Mean COP path length Cobb’s angle Gait parameter: Step length, step time, stride length, stride time, percentage of time in single-leg support, and percentage of time in double-leg support
Larger LLD (3 cm) increased COP path length and Cobb’s angle. LLD (2 cm) has a significant difference in step length on the left (long) side, step time on the left (long) and right (short) sides, and single-leg support time on the left (long) side. LLD (1 cm) was significantly changed on the single leg support time for the short side.
Subject needs to be diagnosed by using goniometer-based clinical test protocol. All subjects were thoroughly familiarized with the gait analysis protocol.
Goniometer-based clinical test protocol 3D gait analysis T10 VICON motion capture system 8 infrared cameras 2 AMTI force plates Reflective markers
200 Hz
Insole
Flexion/ extension ROM for the knee and hip
LLD has greater significant changes than shortening LCPD Max. passive hip ROM has less significant changes than Max. passive hip abduction
3 conditions of protocols: NS-CO: natural standing posture without a heel lift. RHL-CO: natural standing posture with a heel lift under the right foot. LHL-CO: natural standing posture with a heel lift under the left foot.
The MatScan system T-Scan II computerized occlusal analysis system
80 Hz
Hard cork
The total trajectory length of the COP/COF area LWD, AWD, and occlusion force distribution
Body posture: No significant difference between total trajectory lengths of COP, COP area, LWD, and AWD. Artificial LLD has greater significant changes than the control group affected by LWD. Natural standing posture: Heel LL: no significant difference in total trajectory length of COP, COP area, LWD, and AWD Artificial LLD has greater significant changes than control and it affected lateral foot pressure.
Walk at self-selected speed along a 2 m walkway. Videotaped at the frontal and sagittal planes of each child
VICON clinical manager Videotape for frontal and sagittal 2 AMTI force plates 8 cameras 13 reflective markers Scanogram
60 Hz
NM
Compensation based on absolute LLD: Pelvis and knee flexion WD for the hip, knee, and ankle
Short femur: WD at the ankle has greater significant changes than the control group. Joint parameters have greater significant changes than the control group. Short tibias: WD has greater significant changes than the control group. Hip disorder has greater significant changes than normal hip. Joint parameters have greater significant changes than the control group.
Walk with 3 multisteps walking trials, on a 20 m smooth walkway in the court which are separated by 2 10 min periods.
Pedar-X in shoe pedabarograph system Foot mask Insole A pair of standard canvas trainers
NM
Insole foot mask
BL mean peak plantar pressure Contact duration Contact area COP Bilateral average contact time
Peak pressure with LLD decreased at the lateral heel and medial heel. Pressure increased at the medial forefoot. Plantar region LLD increased at contact duration. Contact area decreased midfoot LLD. Locus COP increased during heel strike. There are significant differences in the plantar pressure distribution with LLD patients.
Stand still with feet a shoulder width apart. Data captured at rest. Then, subjects need to move one foot at a time into full pronation posture and full supination. Repeat the process for CL foot. Data is collected during the period of specified time of movement.
3D CODA MPX 30 motion analysis system Reflective markers
NM
NM
Foot pronation Foot supination
Experiment group: Changes in foot position from maximum pronation to supination in a limb length change of 1 cm
Take the measurement placements of leg length and innominate position while standing. Assistants read and record the inclinometer in degrees.
Palpation meter (PALM) inclinometer Caliper instrument Bubble inclinometer Tape measure Large paper clip
NM
NM
Degree of innominate position asymmetry
42 subjects (95%) had some degree of innominate position asymmetry. 32 subjects (73%) had right innominate rotated position. 2 subjects having no significant difference between the sagittal plane rotations of the right and left innominate.
Walk on the walkway for several times to familiarize with the surface and surrounding, about 20 m-long and 1.5 m-wide footplate levels Recorded with barefoot without LLD (control) 3 recording processes and repeated with 1 cm to 5 cm increment each
Polyurethane sole Sandal Musgrave footprint computerized pedabarograph system
56 Hz
Sandal with flexible polyurethane sole
Max load pressure Load distribution
LLD increased total loading on the short leg. LLD increased. Gait cycle times also changed. LLD increased the contact phase time.
Stand still on a static position with eyes focused on the target located 1.5 m away for 30 s.
Berg balance scale (BSS) Photogrammetry (postural assessment software) Passive markers Cameras Force platform system (AMTI)
NM
NM
COP with Stabilometry: (i) ML standard and range (ii) AP standard and range (iii) Length (iv) Rectangular area (v) Elliptical area (vi) Average velocity (vii) Max. ML velocity (viii) Max. AP velocity
BSS shows no significant difference between the control and acromegaly groups. No significant difference for AP view between the control and acromegaly groups Right and left lateral view acromegaly group has greater significant difference than the control group. Stabilometry variables show the largest imbalance when the feet are together with eyes closed. Postural imbalance emphasizes in the acromegaly group.
Stand in prone position. Clinician will do prone leg analysis, and results will recorded by a principal investigator. Repeat the process with another clinician.
Mechanical electric elevation treatment table
NM
Sole
NA
Change in the short leg with head rotation to left Change in the short leg with head rotation to right Change in the short leg with knees flexed observed on short leg Rotation of the head during prone leg analysis Derifield test appears to be unreliable. No significant correlation between the short leg and the patient-reported lower back pain There is significant difference noted in postural improvement
Stand still posture with kinematics recording based on an optoelectronic system
Stereophotogrammetric recording system Baropodographic platform
30 Hz
Wedges
Pelvic obliquity, averaged spinal offset, averaged global offset, Cobb’s angle of main spine curve, lumbar lordotic angle, thoracic kyphosis angle, lower limb load balancing
GRF: ground reaction force; ROM: range of motion; COM: center of mass; WD: weight distribution; LL: long limb; OS: offset; THA: total hip arthroplasty; LLD: leg length discrepancy; ML: medial-lateral; AP: anterior-posterior; OA: osteoarthritis: SD: standard deviation: COP: center of pressure: COF: center of occlusal force; LWD: lateral weight distribution; AWD: anterior weight distribution; Max.: maximum; NM: not mentioned; NA: not applicable; TPA: thermoplastic copolyamides.
