Multilevel and Urban Health Modeling of Risk Factors for Diabetes Mellitus: A New Insight into Public Health and Preventive Medicine

Table 2

Multilevel analysis of adjusted odds ratios (95% CI) of risk predictors for the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM).

Risk predictors^a	OR	(95% CI)	value
Individual level
Age, per 10 years	1.61	(1.55–1.66)	<0.0001
Male versus female	1.20	(1.08–1.34)	0.0011
Race/ethnicity (versus White)
Black	1.66	(1.46–1.89)	<0.0001
Others	1.63	(1.35–1.97)	<0.0001
Education (versus ≥college)
High school	1.02	(0.90–1.15)	0.785
<High school	1.31	(1.12–1.53)	0.001
Smoking status (versus never)
Former smokers	0.88	(0.76–1.01)	0.073
Current smokers	0.98	(0.84–1.13)	0.746
Body weight (versus normal)^b
Underweight	0.70	(0.38–1.28)	0.241
Overweight	1.92	(1.65–2.25)	<0.0001
Obesity	4.72	(4.06–5.47)	<0.0001
Physical activity (versus no)
<1 day/week	1.49	(1.28–1.72)	<0.0001
1–3 days/week	1.16	(0.96–1.39)	0.120
≥4 days/week	1.02	(0.89–1.16)	0.828
Veg./fruit intake (versus ≥5 d/w)
3-4 days/week	0.98	(0.81–1.19)	0.848
<3 days/week	1.06	(0.87–1.30)	0.548
Study periods^c
Period 2 versus period 1	1.10	(1.04–1.17)	0.002
PSE index (versus Q1, <0.62)^d
Q2 (0.62–<0.66)	1.42	(1.17–1.74)	0.001
Q3 (0.66–<0.70)	1.38	(1.13–1.69)	0.002
Q4 (0.70–0.76)	1.53	(1.25–1.88)	<0.0001

All predictors were adjusted with each other in multilevel modeling.
Underweight, normal, overweight, and obesity are defined by BMI < 18.5 kg/m², 18.5–24.9 kg/m², 25–29.9 kg/m², and ≥30 kg/m², respectively.
Period 1: 2002–2004; period 2: 2008–2010.
PSE index: physical and social environmental index (towards worse).
Quarter 1: PSE index, 0.50–<0.62.