Self-Eating: Friend or Foe? The Emerging Role of Autophagy in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Table 1

Autophagy and pulmonary diseases.

Study	Model	Disease	Stimulus/effect
Chen et al. 2008 [24]	in vivo/in vitro	COPD	CS induces autophagy in epithelial cells.
Monick et al. 2010 [25]	in vitro	COPD	CS-induced cell death and emphysema are regulated by LC3β activity.
Chen et al. 2010 [29]	in vivo/in vitro	COPD	CS decreases autophagy in alveolar macrophages.
Luciani et al. 2010 [30]	in vivo/in vitro	CF	Defective autophagy in CF
Abdulrahman et al. 2011 [31]	in vivo/in vitro	CF	Treatment with rapamycin induces autophagy and reduces the burden of B. cenocepacia.
Singh et al. 2006 [33]	in vitro	MTB infection	Induction of autophagy by IFNγ or rapamycin enhances mycobacteria killing.
Gutierez et al. 2004 [34]	in vitro	MTB infection	Induction of autophagy by IFNγ eliminates mycobacteria through an IRGM mechanism.
Lee et al. 2011 [35]	in vivo/in vitro	PH	Autophagy protects against hypoxia-induced PH.
Parhitko et al. 2011 [36]	in vivo/in vitro	TSC	Genetic-pharmacologic inhibition of autophagy blocks autophagy in TSC.
Gills et al. 2007 [39]	in vivo/in vitro	Lung cancer	Nelfinavir activates autophagy and exhibits antiproliferative activity in lung cancer.
Mi et al. 2011 [80]	in vivo/in vitro	PF	Antagonism of IL-17A induces autophagy and protects against fibrosis.
Patel et al. 2012 [5]	in vivo/in vitro	IPF	TGF-β1 inhibits autophagy in lung fibrobasts. Rapamycin induces autophagy in the BLM model and reduces the degree of fibrosis.
Araya et al. 2013 [6]	in vitro	IPF	Insufficient autophagy promotes myofibroblast differentiation and collagen deposition.

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CS: cigarette smoking, CF: cystic fibrosis, MTB: mycobacterium tuberculosis, IFNγ: interferon γ, PH: pulmonary hypertension, TSC: tuberous sclerosis complex, PF: pulmonary fibrosis, IPF: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, TGF-β1: transforming growth factor-β1, BLM: bleomycin.