Table of Contents Author Guidelines Submit a Manuscript
Table of Contents Alerts

To receive news and publication updates for BioMed Research International, enter your email address in the box below.

BioMed Research International
Volume 2014, Article ID 648389, 10 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/648389
Research Article

Resistant Traits in Digital Organisms Do Not Revert Preselection Status despite Extended Deselection: Implications to Microbial Antibiotics Resistance

Clarence F. G. Castillo1 and Maurice H. T. Ling2,3

1School of Information Technology, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore 738964
2School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459
3Department of Zoology, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia

Received 28 February 2014; Revised 29 April 2014; Accepted 7 May 2014; Published 20 May 2014

Academic Editor: Sankar Subramanian

Copyright © 2014 Clarence F. G. Castillo and Maurice H. T. Ling. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

  1. I. Bhatnagar and S. K. Kim, “Pharmacologically prospective antibiotic agents and their sources: a marine microbial perspective,” Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, vol. 34, pp. 631–643, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  2. R. S. Singer, “Antibiotic resistance—the interplay between antibiotic use in animals and human beings,” The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 47–51, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  3. L. A. Hicks, Y.-W. Chien, T. H. Taylor, M. Haber, and K. P. Klugman, “Outpatient antibiotic prescribing and nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1996–2003,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 53, no. 7, pp. 631–639, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  4. A. H. Skalet, V. Cevallos, B. Ayele et al., “Antibiotic selection pressure and macrolide resistance in Nasopharyngeal Streptococcus pneumoniae: a cluster-randomized clinical trial,” PLoS Medicine, vol. 7, no. 12, Article ID e1000377, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  5. A. P. Hendrickx, W. van Schaik, and R. J. Willems, “The cell wall architecture of Enterococcus faecium: from resistance to pathogenesis,” Future Microbiology, vol. 8, pp. 993–1010, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  6. N. Fischer, M. Raunest, T. H. Schmidt, D. C. Koch, and C. Kandt, “Efflux pump-mediated antibiotics resistance: insights from computational structural biology,” Interdisciplinary Sciences: Computational Life Sciences, vol. 6, pp. 1–12, 2014. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  7. K. Wieczorek and J. Osek, “Antimicrobial resistance mechanisms among Campylobacter,” BioMed Research International, vol. 2013, Article ID 340605, 12 pages, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  8. C. H. Lee, J. S. H. Oon, K. C. Lee, and M. H. T. Ling, “Escherichia coli ATCC, 8739 adapts to the presence of sodium chloride, monosodium glutamate, and benzoic acid after extended culture,” ISRN Microbiology, vol. 2012, Article ID 965356, 10 pages, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  9. V. Furtula, E. G. Farrell, F. Diarrassouba, H. Rempel, J. Pritchard, and M. S. Diarra, “Veterinary pharmaceuticals and antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates in poultry litter from commercial farms and controlled feeding trials,” Poultry Science, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 180–188, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  10. D. J. W. Goh, J. A. How, J. Z. R. Lim et al., “Gradual and step-wise halophilization enables Escherichia coli ATCC, 8739 to Adapt to 11% NaCl,” Electronic Physician, vol. 4, pp. 527–535, 2012. View at Google Scholar
  11. J. A. How, J. Z. R. Lim, D. J. W. Goh et al., “Adaptation of Escherichia coli ATCC, 8739 to 11% NaCl,” Dataset Papers in Biology, vol. 2013, Article ID 219095, 7 pages, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  12. D. Bibbal, V. Dupouy, M. F. Prère, P. L. Toutain, and A. Bousquet-Mélou, “Relatedness of Escherichia coli strains with different susceptibility phenotypes isolated from swine feces during ampicillin treatmen,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 75, no. 10, pp. 2999–3006, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  13. P. J. Johnsen, J. P. Townsend, T. Bøhn, G. S. Simonsen, A. Sundsfjord, and K. M. Nielsen, “Factors affecting the reversal of antimicrobial-drug resistance,” The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 357–364, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  14. R. L. Peffly and A. A. Shawarby, “The loss and redevelopment of insecticide resistance in Egyptian house flies,” The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 183–189, 1956. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  15. D. Guillemot, E. Varon, C. Bernède et al., “Reduction of antibiotic use in the community reduces the rate of colonization with penicillin G-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 41, no. 7, pp. 930–938, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  16. S. Haug, T. Lakew, G. Habtemariam et al., “The decline of pneumococcal resistance after cessation of mass antibiotic distributions for trachoma,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 571–574, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  17. V. I. Enne, D. M. Livermore, P. Stephens, and L. M. C. Hall, “Persistence of sulphonamide resistance in Escherichia coli in the UK despite national prescribing restriction,” The Lancet, vol. 357, no. 9265, pp. 1325–1328, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  18. C. F. G. Castillo and M. H. T. Ling, “Digital Organism Simulation Environment (DOSE): a library for ecologically-based in silico experimental evolution,” Advances in Computer Science, vol. 3, pp. 44–50, 2014. View at Google Scholar
  19. C. Adami, “Digital genetics: unravelling the genetic basis of evolution,” Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 109–118, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  20. L. M. Grabowski, D. M. Bryson, F. C. Dyer, R. T. Pennock, and C. Ofria, “A case study of the de novo evolution of a complex odometric behavior in digital organisms,” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, Article ID e60466, 2013. View at Google Scholar
  21. J. Z. R. Lim, Z. Q. Aw, D. J. W. Goh et al., “A genetic algorithm framework grounded in biology,” The Python Papers Source Codes, vol. 2, p. 6, 2010. View at Google Scholar
  22. M. H. T. Ling, “An artificial life simulation library based on genetic algorithm, 3-character genetic code and biological hierarchy,” The Python Papers, vol. 7, p. 5, 2012. View at Google Scholar
  23. M. H. T. Ling, “Ragaraja 1.0: The Genome Interpreter of Digital Organism Simulation Environment (DOSE),” The Python Papers Source Codes, vol. 4, p. 2, 2012. View at Google Scholar
  24. C. Ofria and C. O. Wilke, “Avida: a software platform for research in computational evolutionary biology,” Artificial Life, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 191–229, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  25. M. Woodhead, D. Fleming, and R. Wise, “Antibiotics, resistance, and clinical outcomes,” British Medical Journal, vol. 328, no. 7451, pp. 1270–1271, 2004. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  26. J. F. Crow and M. Kimura, “Efficiency of truncation selection,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 396–399, 1979. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  27. R. Chait, S. Shrestha, A. K. Shah, J.-B. Michel, and R. Kishony, “A differential drug screen for compounds that select against antibiotic resistance,” PLoS ONE, vol. 5, no. 12, Article ID e15179, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  28. H. C. Neu and P. Labthavikul, “In vitro activity of norfloxacin, a quinolinecarboxylic acid, compared with that of β-lactams, aminoglycosides, and trimethoprim,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 23–27, 1982. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  29. C. Knibbe, A. Coulon, O. Mazet, J.-M. Fayard, and G. Beslon, “A long-term evolutionary pressure on the amount of noncoding DNA,” Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 2344–2353, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  30. D. C. Bean, D. M. Livermore, I. Papa, and L. M. C. Hall, “Resistance among Escherichia coli to sulphonamides and other antimicrobials now little used in man,” The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 962–964, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  31. S. Dutta, “Fitness gains hamper efforts to tackle drug resistance,” ELife, vol. 2, Article ID e01809, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  32. D. I. Andersson and D. Hughes, “Antibiotic resistance and its cost: is it possible to reverse resistance?” Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 260–271, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  33. B. M. Vincent, A. K. Lancaster, R. Scherz-Shouval, L. Whitesell, and S. Lindquist, “Fitness trade-offs restrict the evolution of resistance to amphotericin B,” PLoS Biology, vol. 11, Article ID e1001692, 2013. View at Google Scholar
  34. G. M. Knight, E. L. Budd, and J. A. Lindsay, “Large mobile genetic elements carrying resistance genes that do not confer a fitness burden in healthcare-associated neumonia n-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,” Microbiology, vol. 159, pp. 1661–1672, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  35. Z. Sun, X. Jiao, Q. Peng et al., “Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is associated with decreased fitness,” Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry, vol. 31, pp. 347–354, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  36. G. M. Gajardo and J. A. Beardmore, “The brine shrimp artemia: adapted to critical life conditions,” Frontiers in Physiology, vol. 3, article 185, 2012. View at Google Scholar
  37. P. Fernandes, B. Sommer Ferreira, and J. M. Sampaio Cabral, “Solvent tolerance in bacteria: role of efflux pumps and cross-resistance with antibiotics,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 211–216, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  38. D. P. Gnanadhas, S. A. Marathe, and D. Chakravortty, “Biocides—resistance, cross-resistance mechanisms and assessment,” Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, vol. 22, pp. 191–206, 2013. View at Google Scholar