The Emerging Role of Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Drug Resistance in Cancers: Implications in Advanced Prostate Cancer

Table 1

Classes of drugs used to treat advanced prostate cancer in the clinic.

Classes	Drugs	Mechanism(s)	References
Antiandrogens	(i) Enzalutamide; (ii) Bicalutamide; (iii) EPI-506; (iv) ARN-509	Inhibition on the activity of androgen receptor or its splice variant(s) in mediating DNA transcription	[95–102]
Microtubule altering agents	(i) Docetaxel; (ii) Cabazitaxel	Disruption of microtubule; inhibiting AR translocation to nucleus; counteracting expression of oncogenes BCL-2	[103–105]
DNA intercalating agents	(i) Cisplatin; (ii) Satraplatin	Platinum analog drug; creating a DNA adduct; to allow DNA translation; overriding mechanism of DNA repair	[106, 107]; [108, 109]
ER stress inducers	(i) Bortezomib; (ii) Estramustine	Inhibition of the 20S proteasome; modulating BCL-2 expression; depolymerizing cytoplasmic microtubules by binding to tubulin and tau protein	[104, 110–113]
Mitochondria affecting drugs	Mitoxantrone	Mitochondria affecting drugs; causing mitochondrial stress by depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane; inhibiting topoisomerase II-mediated DNA intercalation	[114–116]
Steroid synthesis inhibitor	(i) Abiraterone; (ii) Orteronel	Inhibiting de novo biosynthesis of androgens by targeting CYP17 in the androgen biosynthesis pathway; suppressing AR signaling in castrate resistant prostate cancer	[117–121]