Chewing Gum: Cognitive Performance, Mood, Well-Being, and Associated Physiology

Table 2

Level of chewing and its effect on mood and cognition.

	Unstandardised	SE	Beta	Significance		Adjusted
Mood
Pretest alertness					.03	−.01
Constant	26.45	18.14		.15
Rate of chewing	−.57	.62	−.13	.36
Intensity	−1.04	2.65	−.06	.7
Posttest alertness					.06	.01
Constant	20.74	13.08		.12
Rate of chewing	−.9	.6	−.32	.14
Prior chewing	.01	.02	.12	.61
Intensity	2.19	2.53	.13	.39
Pretest hedonic tone					.02	−.02
Constant	.56	9.77		.95
Rate of chewing	−.25	.33	−.11	.45
Intensity	1.44	1.43	.15	.32
Posttest hedonic tone					.04	−.02
Constant	11.67	7.37		.12
Rate of chewing	−.41	.34	−.26	.23
Prior chewing	.004	.01	.11	.47
Intensity	−.33	1.43	−.04	.82
Pretest anxiety					.05	.01
Constant	−9.62	−.01		.11
Rate of chewing	−.006	.2	−.01	.98
Intensity	1.31	.85	.22	.13
Posttest anxiety					.02	−.04
Constant	.2	4.07		.96
Rate of chewing	−.09	.19	−.11	.62
Prior chewing	−.001	.005	−.04	.86
Intensity	.29	.79	.06	.71
Focused attention
Mean reaction time (ms)					.02	−.04
Constant	.8	8.93		.93
Rate of chewing	.25	.29	.14	.39
Prior chewing	−.003	.01	−.04	.81
Intensity	−1.01	1.78	−.09	.57
Total errors					.1	.05
Constant	−1.6	2.09		.45
Rate of chewing	.02	.07	.04	.81
Prior chewing^*	.01	.003	.32	.04
Intensity	−.15	.42	−.05	.72
Number of long responses					.02	−.03
Constant	.1	.58		.86
Rate of chewing	.01	.02	.04	.81
Prior chewing	.001	.001	.12	.46
Intensity	−.11	.12	−.15	.34
Breadth of attention					.11	.06
Constant	−47.15	19.44		.02
Rate of chewing	1.01	.63	.27	.09
Prior chewing	−.02	.03	−.12	.46
Intensity	4.3	3.87	.17	.27
Speed of encoding					.03	−.03
Constant	−6.53	7.38		.38
Rate of chewing	.13	.24	.09	.58
Prior chewing	.003	.01	.04	.79
Intensity	.69	1.47	.07	.64
Categoric search
Mean reaction time					.01	−.05
Constant	−1.86	12.14		.88
Rate of chewing	.01	.44	.002	.99
Prior chewing	.004	.02	.04	.83
Intensity	−1.49	2.42	−.1	.54
Total errors					.03	−.03
Constant	−2.12	1.72		.23
Rate of chewing	−.01	.06	−.04	.83
Prior chewing	−.001	.002	−.07	.72
Intensity	.42	.34	.19	.23
Long responses					.11	.06
Constant	1.84	.88		.04
Rate of chewing	−.04	.03	−.22	.2
Prior chewing	<.001	.001	.06	.73
Intensity	−.26	.18	−.23	.14
Response organization					.01	−.05
Constant	1.43	8.79		.87
Rate of chewing	.21	.32	.12	.52
Prior chewing	−.003	.01	−.05	.8
Intensity	−.7	1.75	−.06	.69
Speed of encoding					.11	.05
Constant	29.75	9.82		.004
Rate of chewing	−.03	.36	−.02	.93
Prior chewing	.02	.01	.21	.24
Intensity^*	−4.74	1.96	−.37	.02
Spatial uncertainty					.05	−.004
Constant	−15.94	16.94		.35
Rate of chewing	−.88	.61	−.25	.16
Prior chewing	.01	.02	.09	.63
Intensity	3.56	3.38	.16	.3
Place repetition					.02	−.03
Constant	−2.41	8.23		.77
Rate of chewing	−.1	.3	−.06	.73
Prior chewing	.01	.01	.18	.35
Intensity	.09	1.64	.009	.95
Simple reaction time					.08	.03
Constant	−21.09	15.47		.18
Rate of chewing^*	.84	.49	.42	.04
Prior chewing	.007	.02	.05	.7
Intensity	.74	2.69	.04	.79
Repeated digits vigilance
Percent hits					.09	.04
Constant	1.41	1.79		.44
Rate of chewing	−.11	.05	−.32	.06
Prior chewing	<.001	.002	−.03	.86
Intensity	.27	.33	.12	.42
False alarms					.04	−.01
Constant	−.73	5.31		.89
Rate of chewing	.17	.16	.17	.31
Prior chewing	.002	.006	.06	.69
Intensity	−1.11	.98	−.18	.26
Reaction time					.06	.007
Constant	−17.49	24.72		.48
Rate of chewing	−1.2	.75	−.27	.12
Prior chewing	.02	.03	.12	.41
Intensity	6.89	4.56	.23	.14

Indicates < .05.