Review Article

Role of Macrophages in the Repair Process during the Tissue Migrating and Resident Helminth Infections

Table 1

Alternatively activated macrophages (AAMs) in the repair process during tissue migration and resident helminthes.

HelminthExperimental model and mice strainAAMs roleRef.

Nippostrongylus brasiliensisBALB/cIGF-1 production is increased by IL-4, inducing AAM activation followed by tissue repair[48]
FIZZ/RetnlaThe Retnla gene downregulates the Th2 immune response and suppresses resistance to nematode infection, granulomatous inflammation, and fibrosis[49]
BALB/cIn the absence of YM-1, AAMs can still fulfill their repair function[50]
BALB/cNeutrophils are key elements in parasite neutralization and are mediators of repair through AAM activation[51]
IL-9ILC2s may induce AAMs, which mediate adequate tissue repair[52]
STAT6 and Arg-1ILC2s constitutively express Arg-1, and they can repair lung tissue during acute inflammation in the absence of AAMs[20]

Toxocara canisSTAT6STAT6 absence may cause delayed wound healing by the reduction of the AAM population[54]

Schistosoma mansoniLysMIL-4 and IL-4Polarization to the Th1 immune response, associated with CAM activation and NOS production, is related to hepatic damage and death[57]
IL-4RαLysMAAMs are necessary for pathogenic Th1/CAM suppression[58]
FLHThe absence of FHL induces Th1 polarization, which is associated with an increase in granuloma hepatic formation[62]
Arg-1Arg-1 production by AAMs may play an important role in S. mansoni infection control and diminish intestinal damage[63]

Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri and FcRγAntibodies cause AAM activation, enhancing the expression of genes associated with the repair mechanisms[43]
C57BL/6 and Cx3Cr1Infection increases the expression of Ym-1, RELM-α, and CD206, enhancing collagen deposition and fibrosis in heart tissue[68]

Trichinella spiralisOb/ob and C57BL/6AAMs mediate inflammation in adipose tissue, insulin resistance, and glucose control[69]
BALB/cThe rTsP53 protein appears to be beneficial during colitis, with an increase in AAMs [70]

Taenia crassicepsBALB/cAAMs have immunomodulatory effects in experimental colitis and colon cancer models[71, 72]
C57BL/6A decrease in inflammation and EAE symptoms is associated with AAM activation[73]

Trichuris murisArg-1, Tie2-cre, and C57BL/6Arg-1 is dispensable for tissue repair, but its absence is not related to damage[74]