Review Article

Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis and Cognition: A Review of Clinical, Neuropsychologic, and Neuroradiologic Features

Table 1

Methods and results of cross-sectional studies.

AuthorsMS sample sizeControl sample sizeCognitive impairment definitionNeuropsychological testsImpaired cognitive domainsImpairment rate

Banwell and Anderson [6]10Each individual’s performance on each measure was scored relative to age norms.Full-Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Verbal Comprehension Index, Perceptual Organization Index, Freedom from Distractibility Index, Processing Speed Index, CELF, COWAT, CELF formulated sentences, TLC Ambiguous sentences, VMI, Rey-O Figure, Grooved Pegboard, Vigilance subtest, CMS, CAVLT, WJRTA, WRATLanguage, visuomotor integration, verbal and visual memory, information processing speed, working memory and executive functions, general cognition

MacAllister et al. [7]37Scores > 1.5 SDs below the published normative means on least 2 cognitive tasksTMT, COWAT, Boston Naming Test, CELF-3rd edition, two subtests of the WRAML: Verbal Learning and Visual Learning, VMIComplex attention receptive language, naming, memory35%

Amato et al. [8]6357Scoring less than the 5th percentile of healthy control performance on least 3 testsWISC-R, SRT and SRT-D from the Rao’s BRB, SPART and SPART-D from the BRB, SDMT from the BRB, TMT A and B, Modified Card Sorting Test, Semantic and Phonemic Verbal Fluency Test, and Oral Denomination Test from the Aachener Aphasia TestComplex attention, visual and verbal memory, executive functions, language function31%

Till et al. [9]3533Three or more test scores 1.5 SDs below the normative values on the test batteryWASI, TMT-A and B, SDMT-Oral version, Visual Matching from the Woodcock–Johnson III (WJ-III) Test of Cognitive Abilities, Rapid Picture Naming from the WJ-III Test of Cognitive Abilities, Conner’s Continuous Performance Test—5th edition, WSR, WMI-5th edition, Verbal Fluency subtest from the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System, Picture Vocabulary from WJ-III Tests of Academic Achievement, Vocabulary and Similarities subtests from the WASI, WCSTAttention, information processing speed, expressive language, visuomotor integration29.4%

Julian et al. [10]187 (MS)
44 (CIS)
≥33% of test scores < 1 SD below normative dataWASI Full 2, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II Pseudoword Decoding, Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test, Digit Span test, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Coding Test, Contingency Naming Test, Delis Kaplan Executive Function System Trail Making Test, California Verbal Learning Test-Child version or II, WMI-6th edition, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence Matrix Reasoning, Grooved Pegboard TestFine motor speed, visuomotor integration, information processing speed35% (MS)
18% (CIS)

BRB: Rao’s Brief Repeatable Battery; CAVLT: children’s auditory verbal learning test; CELF: clinical evaluation of language fundamentals; CMS: children’s memory scale; COWAT: controlled oral word association test; Rey-O: Rey–Osterreith complex figure; SDMT: Symbol Digit Modalities Test; SRT: Selective Reminding Test; SRT-D: Selective Reminding Test-Delayed; SPART: Spatial Recall Test; SPART-D: Spatial Recall Test-Delayed; TMT: Trail Making Test; TLC: test of language competence; VMI: Beery–Buktenica visual motor integration test; WASI: Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; WCST: Wisconsin card sorting test; WISC-R: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised; WJ: Woodcock Johnson; WJRTA: Woodcock Johnson-revised tests of achievement; WRAML: wide range assessment of memory and learning test; WRAT: wide range achievement test; WSR: word selective reminding.