Research Article

Appearances Are Deceiving: Observing the World as It Looks and How It Really Is—Theory of Mind Performances Investigated in 3-, 4-, and 5-Year-Old Children

Table 3

Statistical association between different comprehension of appearance-reality tasks and the age of the participants: Chi-square test.

TaskComprehension3 years4 years5 yearsChi-square

Appearance-reality(1)Absent18 (5.5)1 (−1.8)0 (3.9)29.56
Present13 (5.5)13 (1.8)27 (3.9)
False-belief task with puppetsAbsent26 (3.8)11 (−.5)11 (3.3)15.90
Present4 (3.8)9 (.5)19 (3.3)
False-belief task with picturesAbsent22 (2.8)13 (.7)8 (3.5)13.41
Present7 (2.8)8 (−.7)20 (3.5)
Smarties test 1Absent20 (3.3)8 (−.2)5 (3.2)13.20
Present11 (3.3)12 (.2)23 (3.2)
Smarties test 2Absent23 (4.9)6 (−1.1)3 (4.0)25.83
Present8 (4.9)14 (1.1)25 (4.0)

Note. Frequencies and residuals in bold are significant. Standardized adjusted residuals are in brackets. (1) Fisher Exact Test was used instead of Chi-square test. and .