Appearances Are Deceiving: Observing the World as It Looks and How It Really Is—Theory of Mind Performances Investigated in 3-, 4-, and 5-Year-Old Children
Table 3
Statistical association between different comprehension of appearance-reality tasks and the age of the participants: Chi-square test.
Task
Comprehension
3 years
4 years
5 years
Chi-square
Appearance-reality(1)
Absent
18 (5.5)
1 (−1.8)
0 (−3.9)
29.56
Present
13 (−5.5)
13 (1.8)
27 (3.9)
False-belief task with puppets
Absent
26 (3.8)
11 (−.5)
11 (−3.3)
15.90
Present
4 (−3.8)
9 (.5)
19 (3.3)
False-belief task with pictures
Absent
22 (2.8)
13 (.7)
8 (−3.5)
13.41
Present
7 (−2.8)
8 (−.7)
20 (3.5)
Smarties test 1
Absent
20 (3.3)
8 (−.2)
5 (−3.2)
13.20
Present
11 (−3.3)
12 (.2)
23 (3.2)
Smarties test 2
Absent
23 (4.9)
6 (−1.1)
3 (−4.0)
25.83
Present
8 (−4.9)
14 (1.1)
25 (4.0)
Note. Frequencies and residuals in bold are significant. Standardized adjusted residuals are in brackets. (1) Fisher Exact Test was used instead of Chi-square test. and .