| | Local factors | Dental abscess, candida infection, trauma to the oral cavity, hyposalivation, removable prostheses, and gastric oesophageal reflux disease |
| | Drugs | Antimicrobials | Antibacterials: cephalosporins, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, clindamycin, co-trimoxazole, doxycycline, imipenem with cilastatin, metronidazole, ofloxacin,
penicillins, trimethoprim, tetracycline, and vancomycin | | Antivirals: aciclovir, ganciclovir, indinavir, ritonavir, and zidovudine | | Antifungals: fluconazole and griseofulvin | | Central nervous system | | Antiparkinsonians: bromocriptine, levodopa, and pergolide | | Migraine medications: naratriptan and sumatriptan | | Muscle relaxants: baclofen and methocarbamol | | Tricyclic antidepressants: amitriptyline, clomipramine, desipramine, doxepin, imipramine, nortriptyline, and trimipramine | | Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, and sertraline | | Antipsychotics: clozapine, olanzapine, and risperidone | | Benzodiazepines: alprazolam, clonazepam, flurazepam, and midazolam | | Mood stabilisers: lithium | | Cardiovascular | | Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, and perindopril | | Beta-adrenoreceptor blockers: labetalol, metoprolol, propranolol, and timolol | | Calcium-channel blockers: amlodipine, diltiazem, and nifedipine | | Potassium-sparing diuretics: amiloride and triamterene | | Statins: atorvastatin, fluvastatin, and simvastatin | | Antiarrhythmics: amiodarone, flecainide, and procainamide | | Endocrine | | Diabetic medications: glibenclamide, metformin, and tolbutamide | | Other | | Antineoplastics: busulfan, dacarbazine, vinblastine, and vincristine | | Antimalarials: hydroxychloroquine, pyrimethamine, and quinine | | Bisphosphonates: alendronic acid, etidronic acid, and pamidronic acid | | Bronchodilators: salbutamol and terbutaline | | Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories: celecoxib, diclofenac, ketoprofen, and ketorolac |
| | Systemic disease | Diabetes mellitus, haematinic deficiency (ferritin, folate, or vitamin B12), Sjögren’s syndrome, Crohn’s disease, and chronic kidney disease |
| | Peripheral nervous system | Syndromes affecting the facial, glossopharyngeal, or vagal nerves (e.g., Bell’s palsy) and tumours of the skull base or cerebellopontine angle (meningioma, schwannoma, epidermoid tumour, and brain metastasis) |
| | Central nervous system | Ischaemia, haemorrhage, or demyelination affecting the brainstem, thalamus or cortical components of the gustatory pathway, and temporal lobe epilepsy |
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