The Role of Vitamin D in Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Review of the Literature

Table 2

Vitamin D and cardiovascular diseases.

Study type	Subjects division		Population	Vitamin D assessment/supplement	Duration	Conclusion	Citation
Prospective	Female; Male	28; 32	Iranian	Vitamin D assessment, P-selectin, and hs-CRP levels measurement for thrombosis condition	3 months	Did not find significant relationship between Vitamin D and P-selectin and hs-CRP levels	[120]
Cross-sectional	Postmenopausal women	926	Chinese	Vitamin D assessment & carotid IMT measurement		Serum 25(OH)D inversely correlated with carotid IMT	[115]
Cross-sectional	Female (43%), male (57%)	567		Vitamin D assessment, arterial stiffness, and carotid IMT		Nonlinear relationship between 25(OH)D and IMT, and IMT increases slightly for 25(OH)D levels above 50 nmol/L	[117]
Prospective	2148		Finnish	Vitamin D assessment & carotid IMT measurement	27 years	Low Vitamin D levels were associated with increased carotid IMT in adulthood	[116]
Cross-sectional	T2DM	352	Chinese	Vitamin D assessment, carotid plaques, and carotid IMT		Serum Vitamin D independently associated with carotid atherosclerosis in T2D	[113]
Randomized controlled	T2D	415	Danish	Vitamin D assessment, carotid IMT and arterial stiffness markers, and DXA scan	4 years	25(OH)D status not associated with carotid IMT, arterial thickness, or bone health	[106]
Cross-sectional	Control; Case (atherosclerosis)	110; 98		Vitamin D assessment & coronary CT angiography		Relationship between low Vitamin level and coronary atherosclerosis and plaque burden, but not with morphology	[101]
Randomized controlled	Placebo; Case (atorvastatin)	103; 98	Diverse	Vitamin D assessment, carotid IMT progression, and secondary outcomes (cholesterol, LDL, and hs-CRP)	3 years	Baseline 25(OH)D levels ≥21 ng/mL associated with lower baseline hs-CRP levels. Vitamin D deficiency may be involved in response to atorvastatin	[100]
Randomized controlled	Placebo; Case-supplement	100; 100	Austria	Vitamin D supplementation for cases, 2800 IU of Vitamin D3/day for 8 weeks		Supplementation for hypertensive patients with low serum levels has no significant effect on blood pressure	[91]
Prospective	White (76%), Black (24%)	12215	Diverse	Vitamin D assessment	21 years	Association between Vitamin D and risk of heart failure found for both Black and White people, but in White people it also reflected incidence of heart failure	[89]
Cross-sectional	Controls; Case (stroke patients)	70; 73	Indian	Vitamin D assessment, iPTH levels, and risk factors of stroke		Vitamin D deficiency is not linked with ischemic stroke or its risk factors	[87]
Prospective	Female; Male	2007; 1388	Netherlands	Assessment of Vitamin D, Atrial Fibrillation (AF), and confounders	12 years	Vitamin D status was not associated with AF incidence	[82]
Cohort	9949		German	Vitamin D assessment and fatal and nonfatal CVD incidence	5 years	Relationship suggests that low 25(OH)D levels moderately increase risk of CVD, much strongly for fatal incidences	[80]
Prospective Mendelian	95766		Danish	Vitamin D assessment, genotypes for DHCR7 & CYP2R1, and mortality confounders	5–19 years	Vitamin D concentration not associated with CVD mortality but could be result of confounding factors	[68]
Cross-sectional	Without plaque; With plaque	712; 289	Chinese	Vitamin D assessment, carotid plaque, and carotid IMT		Serum Vitamin D levels are inversely associated with atherosclerosis. Vitamin D is also a protective factor for increased carotid IMT amongst subjects with plaque	[11]
Prospective	12158			Vitamin D assessment, stroke incidence, and rs7041, rs4588 SNPs for D binding protein were genotyped	20 years	Low 25(OH)D levels are risk factor for stroke, especially those predisposed to high DBP	[10]