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| Activity tested | Model used | Plant part used/tested material | Extract type | Dosage | Control | Results | Reference |
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| Antibacterial | Nutrient agar medium was mixed with extract and bacteria suspension.
Species strains: Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6051 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 12600 and Escherichia coli ATCC 11775 and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 | Rhizome | DCM, PE, water, and EtOH rhizome extracts | 1 mg mL | Water and bacteria free broth (−ve), 0.1 mg/mL neomycin (+ve) | The PE and DCM extracts of the rhizomes exhibited the best activity (MIC values of 0.39 mg/mL) against B. subtilis. The rest of the extracts showed low activity (MIC values >1 mg/mL) | [6] |
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| Antibacterial | Agar dilution methods with the following organisms:
Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus kristinae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella poona, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae | Crude extracts of the leaf, stem, rhizome, and root | Acetone and methanol | 1–10 mg/mL | Plates containing 1% acetone and methanol in agar | The acetone rhizome extract showed better activity than others especially on S. aureus and B. cereus
moderate activity that was recorded against the gram-positive bacteria tested with the exception of Micrococcus kristinae | [8] |
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| Antimicrobial | Microdilution method on Mueller-Hinton broth. Species Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae | Rhizome and leaf (fresh, 90 days old, and one-year- old material) were assayed | Water, ethanol, and hexane extracts | 12.5, 6.25, 3.13, 1.56, 0.78, 0.39, 0.20, and 0.1 mg/mL | Extract-free solution and ethanol were used as a blank control and neomycin (+ve) | The water extracts of plants tested for antibacterial activity showed no activity,
whereas the ethanol extracts generally showed an increase in activity. The antibacterial activity increase with storage or ageing of plant material | [33] |
|
| Antimicrobial | Agar well diffusion method using H. pylori inocula prepared at McFarland’s turbidity standard 2 was plated onto BHI agar supplemented with 5% horse blood and Skirrow’s supplement | Roots/rhizomes | Ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol, and water | 100 mg/mL | Clarithromycin and 10% DMSO were used as positive and negative controls, respectively | The plants demonstrated anti-H. pylori activity with zone diameters of inhibition between 0 and 38 mm and 50% minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC50) values ranging from 0.06 to 5.0 mg/mL | [9] |
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| Antimicrobial | Agar well diffusion method. Alepidea amatymbica were investigated against 30 clinical strains of H. pylori | Roots/rhizomes | Ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol, and water | 0.002–5.0 mg/mL | Reference control strain (NCTC 11638). Metronidazole and amoxicillin were included as positive control antibiotics | Methanol was quantitatively the best solvent for all the plants while ethyl acetate had the lowest yields. A. amatymbica gave percentage susceptibilities of less than 50% | [9] |
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| Antifungal | Agar dilution methods with the following organisms:
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, and Penicillium notatum cultures were maintained on Potato Dextrose agar | Crude extracts of the leaf, stem, rhizome, and root | Acetone and methanol | Radial pattern of streaking of organisms was used | Plates containing only PDA or PDA with the respective solvent | Diameter of the fungal growth was measured and expressed as percentage growth inhibition. All the extracts showed more than 50% mycotic inhibition with activity ranging from 51.39% to 81.11% at 5 mg/mL with the rhizome | [8] |
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| Antifungal | The antifungal activity of the extracts was evaluated against Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) and fungal culture was prepared in Yeast Malt (YM) | Rhizome | DCM, PE, water, and EtOH rhizome extracts | 0.1–5.0 mg/mL | Water and bacteria free broth (−ve), 0.1 mg/mL neomycin (+ve) | All the extracts showed activity against Candida albicans | [6] |
|
| Anti-inflammatory | Using the enzyme based cyclooxygenase assays COX-1 and COX-2 | Rhizome | DCM, PE, water, and EtOH rhizome extracts | 1 mg mL | Water and bacteria free broth (−ve), 0.1 mg/mL neomycin (+ve) | The PE and DCM extracts had high COX-1 activity with percentage inhibitions above 70%. Ethanol extracts had inhibition less than 40% | [6] |
|
| Antihypertensive | Purified compounds on blood pressure and heart rate of anesthetized Wistar rats. | Fresh rhizomes | Hexane extractive (AA/1), dichloromethane extractive, and methanol extractive | i.p. injection of sodium thiopentone (40 mg/kg body weight) | Chlorothiazide | In addition to the cardiovascular effects, distinct diuretic and natriuretic effects were found | [24] |
|
| Antiplasmodium | Plasmodium falciparum strain D10 using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay | Whole plant | Dichloromethane (DCM), DCM/methanol (MeOH) (1 : 1), MeOH, and purified water | 100–0.2 μg/mL) | Chloroquine diphosphate served as the positive control | Detect plant-based antimalarial agents showing promising antiplasmodial activity with IC50 values of ≤10 g/mL | [34] |
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| Diuretic | The Lipschitz test was used to determine the Diuretic and saluretic activity in rats | Fresh rhizome | Hexane/ethyl acetate extract | The test compound was applied orally at a dose of 50 mg/kg | Urea (1 g/kg b.w.)
Hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg/kg b.w.) | The diuretic and natriuretic effects of the extractives were found to be similar to the effects of chlorothiazide | [24] |
|
| Cardiovascular | Purified compounds on blood pressure and heart rate of anesthetized Wistar rats | Purified compound from fresh rhizome | Hexane extract (AA/1), dichloromethane, and methanol portion of AA/1 were subjected to repeated flash chromatography with gradient elution (100–70% hexane/EtOAc) to give AA/3, a crystalline mixture of ent-kaur-en-19-oic acid, ent-kaura-9 (11), 16-dien-19-oic acid, and trachyloban-19-oic acid, AA/4, 16-methoxy-ent-kaur-11-en-19-oic acid, AA/5, 11-acetoxy-ent-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid, and AA/6, wedelia seco-kaurenolide | 20 mg/kg b.w. intraperitoneally | Ethylene glycol | Moderate, but significant, decreasing systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HT) effects after intraperitoneal application on conscious rats | [24] |
|
| Anti-HIV | Extracts and therein subfractions of A. amatymbica were assessed in a cell based assay targeting the replication of prototypic CXCR4-tropic (NL4-3) or CCR5-tropic
(NL-AD87) HIV-1 strains | Aerial parts and roots | Aqueous | 500 μL of sample at a concentration of 25 mg/mL | Standard retroviral inhibitor | The active ingredient identified in the aqueous extract does not support a direct application of this plant extract for treating HIV infection. The anti-HIV activity of the pure compound was found to be quite moderate | [2, 12] |
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| Antihelminthes | Nematode growth agar with Caenorhabditis elegans var. Bristol (N2) nematodes | Fresh and stored leaves and root | Ethanol | 1 mg/mL | Levamisole (+Ve) and nematode incubated with water (−Ve) | Only fresh and stored water extracts showed a significant antihelminthes | [33] |
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| Toxicity | The bacterial cultures (100 μL) were added to 100 μL of plant extract in 500 μL phosphate buffer and 2 mL of agar containing biotin-histidine (0.5 mM) | Rhizome | DCM, PE, water, and EtOH rhizome extracts | 50, 500, and 5000 μg/mL | 4-Nitroquinoline-N-oxide (4NQO) was used as a positive control and water (−ve control) | The Ames test revealed that none of the plant extracts significantly increased the number of His+ revertants with respect to the negative control | [6] |
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| Cytoxicity | HeLa, Vero, Jurkat E6.1, AA-2, or CEM-SS cells | Fresh rhizomes | Aqueous | 1 mg/mL | Not stated | The extract was not toxic at any concentration used in the test | [35] |
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| Acute toxicity | Evaluation using brine shrimp Artemia salina intersection bioassay | Fresh rhizomes | Hexane | Not stated | Not stated | The brine shrimp test showed that the crude hexane extracts have low toxicity with LC50 0.2 | [24] |
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| Toxicity | The Hippocratic test on rats was used | Fresh rhizomes | Isolates from Alepidea amatymbica
Hexane extractive | 0.1 mg/mL | Verapamil (10 mg/kg) | All extracts, crude and purified, showed low toxicity ranging from LC50 0.5 to 5 ng/mL apart from AA/4 and AA/5 that produced slight diarrhea on days 3, 4, and 5 and other extractives showed no toxicity at a dose of 20 | [24] |
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