Propolis: A Complex Natural Product with a Plethora of Biological Activities That Can Be Explored for Drug Development

Table 3

Anti-inflammatory mechanisms investigated with propolis.

Origin	Propolis type/plant source	Type of extract/isolated compound(s)	Species/cells	Effect	References
Purchased: Sigma Aldrich Co.; Synthesized	Characteristic of European, Brazilian, and Mediterranean propolis	Caffeic acid, quercetin, naringenin; CAPE	Peritoneal macrophages	Suppression of lipoxygenase pathway of arachidonic acid metabolism; CAPE being the most potent modulator of the arachidonic acid cascade	[90]
Croatia	European propolis/Populus nigra	Water-soluble derivatives	Swiss albino mice	Reduction of DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes	[188]
		PEE	Male Swiss albino mice	Suppression of functional activity of macrophages	[104]
Purchased: Sigma Aldrich Co.			J774 macrophages, Male Wistar rats	In vitro and in vivo inhibition of cyclooxygenase 1 and cyclooxygenase 2 activity	[91, 189];
			Male Wistar albino rats	Decrease of polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocyte infiltration in the lungs tissues	[190];
	Characteristic of European type propolis	CAPE	Gastric epithelial cell line (AGS), H. pylori (strain NCTC 11638)	Inhibition of H. pylori-induced NF-kB and activator protein 1-DNA-binding activity; prevention of IkBα degradation in AGS; and suppression of TNF-α and interleukin 8 production	[191];
Purchased: Wako Pure Chemical Industries, Ltd.			RAW264.7 macrophages	Decrease of the production of interleukin-1β, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and the production and expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)	[98];
			Male Swiss inbred strain mice	Decrease of cyclooxygenase 2 expression, NF-κB activity, c-Jun-N-terminal kinase, inhibitor of NF-κB kinase (IKK), and inhibitor of NF-κB (IkB) phosphorylation	[97]
Brazil	Green propolis/B. dracunculifolia	PEE	RAW264.7 macrophages	Downregulation of NF-κB, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase	[101]
Purchased: Acros Organics	Characteristic of European, Brazilian, and Mediterranean propolis	Caffeic acid
Brazil	Green propolis/B. dracunculifolia	PEE	Sprague-Dawley rats	Inhibition of carrageenan-induced rat hind paws edema and the chemotaxis of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)	[95]
Synthesized	Characteristic of European type propolis	CAPE	Polymorphonuclear leukocytes obtained from Human blood	Inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase activity and arachidonic acid release	[103]
Chile	European propolis/poplar trees	PEE	Male CF-1 mice	Inhibition of NO release by the macrophages	[102]
China	European propolis/Populus nigra	PEE and PWE	Male ICR mice and male Wistar rats	Inhibition of the activation and differentiation of mononuclear macrophages; decrease prostaglandin-E2 (PGE 2) and nitric oxide (NO) levels	[61]
Brazil	Green propolis/B. dracunculifolia	PWE	Swiss and BALB/c mice	Decrease in the number of macrophages and neutrophils; inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines and increase of anti-inflammatory cytokines	[99]
	Red propolis/Dalbergia ecastaphyllum	PEE	Male Wistar rats	Decrease in renal macrophage infiltration in rats with chronic kidney disease	[100]
Nepal	Nepalese propolis/probably Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, and Bombax cieba	PEE, 3′,4′-dihydroxy-4-methoxydalbergione, 4-ethoxydalbergion, cearoin, and chrysin	Bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC) from C57BL/6 mice	Inhibiting IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-13 gene expression in BMMC and also inhibiting the activation of IKK leading to NF-κB inactivation	[96]