| | Type of study model | Experimental method [subject (age/weight), treatment dosage, duration of treatment] | Major activity | Mechanism of action | Reference |
| | In vivo study | Male NC/Nga mice (6 weeks), 2% concentrated DSW (CDSW) (7958.6 hardness), 10% CDSW (39793 hardness), 200 μL of test samples, five times per week, six weeks | Reduced severity of symptoms in the skin lesions, such as edema, erythema, dryness, itching, and transepidermal water loss (TEWL).
Decreased epidermal thickness and infiltration of inflammatory cells.
| Inhibited upregulation of IgE, histamine, and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in the serum.
Downregulated CD4+/CD8+ ratio in spleen lymphocyte by 10% CDSW.
Reduced the expression of IL-4 and IL-10 from Th2 cells in the 10% CDSW-treated group. | [30] |
| | Clinical study | 33 patients (mean age 26 years, range 1–50 years, 13 male and 20 female subjects), DSW 1000 hardness, 500 ml/day, 6 months | Improved skin symptoms.
Balanced certain minerals in the body.
| Improved skin symptoms such as inflammation, lichenification, and cracking in skin.
Restored essential minerals such as Se and reduced the level of toxic minerals such as mercury and lead. | [31] |
| | Clinical study | 50 patients with allergic rhinitis (age 22–50 years), DSW 1000 hardness, 500 ml/day, 3 weeks | Improved skin symptoms. | Reduced allergic skin responses and serum levels of total IgE, Japanese cedar pollen-specific IgE, IL-4, IL-6, IL-13, and IL-18. | [32] |
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