Intestinal Microbiota and Liver Diseases: Insights into Therapeutic Use of Traditional Chinese Medicine

Table 1

Interaction between the intestinal microbiota and liver diseases.

Disease	Subjects	Gut microbiota	Gut microbial metabolites	Potential mechanisms	Ref.
Viral hepatitis	CHC patients	↑Streptococcus and Lactobacillus; ↓Clostridiales	↑pH	Gut dysbiosis, Viridans streptococci↑	Inoue et al. [20]
	HBVCLD (CHB, LC) patients	↑Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes, Proteobacteria; ↓Bifidobacteriaceae, Clostridiaceae, Actinobacteria	None	Glycan biosynthesis↑, potential bacteria↑, potential beneficial bacteria↓	Zeng et al. [21]
NAFLD	NAFLD patients	↑Bacteroidetes, Gram-negative/Gram-positive; ↓Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lactobacillaceae, Peptostreptococcaceae	↓SCFAs	SCFAs-producing bacteria↓, beneficial bacteria↓, potentially opportunistic pathogenic lipopolysaccharide-producing bacteria↑	Wang et al. [26]
	HFD-induced NAFLD mice	↑Lachnoclostridium, Lachnospiraceae_UCG-006, Mollicutes_RF9; ↓Blautia, Akkermansia, Bacteroides	↑lithocholic acid, deoxycholic acid; ↓acetate, propionate, butyrate	Changes in secondary metabolites (bile acid and SCFAs)	Li et al. [27]
Liver cirrhosis	In vitro	↑Hi Alc K. pneumoniae	↑EnEth	Mitochondrial dysfunction↑, lipid accumulation↓	Chen et al. [28]
	Liver cirrhosis patients	↑ Enterococcaceae, Staphylococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae; ↓Clostridiales XIV, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Veillonellaceae, Porphyromonadaceae,	None	CDR↓, LPS↑, inflammatory response↑	Bajaj et al. [32]
	Liver cirrhosis patients with/without HE patients	↑Staphylococcaceae; Enterococcaceae, Porphyromonadaceae, Lactobacillaceae; ↓Lactobacillus, Eubacterium	↑endotoxin, ammonia; ↓SCFAs	Systemic inflammation↑, ammonia↑, neuronal and astrocytic dysfunction↑	Ahluwalia et al. [35]
Liver failure	ACLF patients	↑Pasteurellaceae, Streptococcaceae, Enterococcaceae; ↓Bacteroidaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae	None	Systemic inflammation↑	Chen et al. [40]
	Rat model of acute liver failure	↑Acetatifactor muris, Butyricimonas spp., Oscillibacter spp.; ↓Alloprevotella spp.	None	probiotics↓	Wang et al. [49]
Liver cancer	Liver cancer patients	↑Klebsiella, Haemophilus; ↓Alistipes, Phascolarctobacterium, Ruminococcus, Oscillibacter, Faecalibacterium, Clostridium IV	↑LPS, ↓butyrate	LPS-producing bacteria↑; butyrate-producing bacteria↓	Ren et al. [45]
	Obesity-associated HCC mice	↑Clostridium cluster XI, XIVa	↑deoxycholic acid	Gram-positive bacteria↑	Yoshimoto et al. [47]

CHC: chronic hepatitis C; HBVCLD: HBV-induced chronic liver disease; SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids; NAFLD: nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; HFD: high-fat diet; EnEth: endogenous ethanol; BT: bacteria translocation; LPS: lipopolysaccharide.