Plant Bioactives in the Treatment of Inflammation of Skeletal Muscles: A Molecular Perspective

Table 1

Plant bioactives in the management of musculoskeletal disorders.

Dietary food or medicinal herb	Family	Phytochemical molecule	Research summary	References
Coffea arabica	Rubiaceae	Caffeine dimethylxanthines, paraxanthine, theobromine, theophylline	↓ in IL-1a, IL-6, and TNF-α	[46]
			↑ proliferation of the tissues
			↑ in the nucleic acid synthesis via the Akt signaling pathway
			↓ in the levels of circulating inflammatory cytokines
			↑ activatin of satellite cells
Zingiber officinale	Zingiberaceae	Gingerol, shogaol	↓ in the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes, via the suppression of the prostaglandin synthetase 5-lipoxygenase enzymes	[51, 52, 54–57]
			↓ the IL-1, IL-8, and TNF-α synthesis
			↓ the expression of iNOS and COX-2 genes
			Hexane fraction of ginger extract ↓the excessive NO, PGE2, TNF-α, and IL-1β
Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Curcumin or diferuloylmethane	↓ the activation of the NF-кB signaling pathway	[78, 80, 81]
			↑ expression of glucose-regulated protein 94 kDa (Grp94) in myogenic cells
Aloe vera or Aloe barbadensis	Liliaceae	Campesterol, β-sitosterol	↑ the inhibition and ↓ the expression of PGE2 and inducible nitric oxide.	[90, 91]
Citrus limon	Rutaceae	Quercetin, limocitrin, and spinacetin	↓ the pro-inflammatory molecules such as ROS, PG scaffolds, and precursors	[95, 96]
			↓ free radical levels, by means of scavenging, in its leaf extract
			Inhibition of xanthine redox reaction
Glycyrrhiza glabra	Leguminosae	Hispaglabridins A and B	↓ the synthesis of IL-6, NO, PGE2, and TNF-α	[97, 106–109]
			↓ in the microsomal lipid peroxidation
			Potent antioxidant effect in its hydromethanolic extract
Citrus aurantium	Rutaceae	Essential oils, vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds, terpenoids	Inhibition of iNOS, COX-2, IL-6, and TNF-α, by inhibiting the MAPKs and NF-кB signaling pathways	[123]
Alstonia scholaris	Apocynaceae	Echitamine, tubotaiwine, akuammicine, echitamidine, picrinine and strictamine	↓in total leukocyte migration	[136]
			↓ in the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators such as COX, LOX, PGE2, and NO, upon validation of its ethanolic extract
Eysenhardtia polystachya	Fabaceae	Coumarins, dihydrochalcones, fatty Acids, flavonoids	↓ in the expression of PGE2, IL-1β, TNF-α, LTB4, in a methanolic extract	[140, 141]
			↓ in the expression of enzymes LOX and xanthine-oxidase when a methanolic extract was used
Ipomoea batatas	Convolvulaceae	Vit B1, vit B5, vit B6, niacin, riboflavin, polyphenols	Modulation of IL-1β, IL-6, and NO	[150]
			↓ in the activity of PGE2, IL-1β, and TNF-α, upon methanolic tuber extraction
			↓ in NO levels, upon administration of ethyl acetate root extract
Swertia chirayita	Gentianaceae	Chiratin, xanthone derivative	Ethanolic leaves extract ↓ the activity of TNF-α and IL-1α	[162]
Strychnos nux-vomica	Loganiaceae	Quercetin-3-rhamnoside, and rutin	Leaves extract ↓ the effect exerted by PGE2 and TNF-α	[165–168]
			Antiarthritic and antiinflammatory effect attributed to the ↓ of PGE2 levels
Rosemarinus officinalis	Lamiaceae	Rosmarinic acid, rosmadial, rosmanol, rosmaquinones	Rosmarinic acid disrupts the activation of complement system	[180]
			↓ in the C3b attachment at low doses
Borago officinalis	Boraginaceae	Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA),	↓ in the expression and activity of TNF-α	[183, 184]
Harpagophytum procumbens	Pedaliaceae	Harpagoside	↓ in the total levels of NO, PGE2, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α	[189–191]
			Intercepts the metabolism of arachidonic acid and the synthesis of eicosanoids, thereby inhibiting COX-2 enzyme

↓ represents a decreasing trend and ↑ represents an increasing trend.