Geochronology and Geochemistry of the Karadaban Bimodal Volcanic Rocks in the Altyn Area, Xinjiang: Implications for the Tectonic Evolution of the Altyn Ocean

Jia, Wen-Bin; Yan, Guang-Sheng; Yu, Xiao-Fei; Li, Yong-Sheng; Conticelli, Sandro; Du, Ze-Zhong

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6256398

Geofluids

On this page

Abstract Introduction Sampling Results Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments Supplementary Materials References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2019 | Article ID 6256398 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6256398

Geochronology and Geochemistry of the Karadaban Bimodal Volcanic Rocks in the Altyn Area, Xinjiang: Implications for the Tectonic Evolution of the Altyn Ocean

Wen-Bin Jia,^1,2Guang-Sheng Yan ,³Xiao-Fei Yu,²Yong-Sheng Li,²Sandro Conticelli,⁴and Ze-Zhong Du²

Academic Editor: Ling-Li Zhou

Received19 Oct 2018

Revised30 Mar 2019

Accepted13 May 2019

Published19 Aug 2019

Abstract

Detailed geochronological, geochemical, and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic data are presented for early Paleozoic volcanic rocks in the Karadaban area from the northern Altyn region, NW China, with the aim to constrain their petrogenesis and tectonic implications. The Karadaban volcanic rocks show a bimodal distribution in composition, with rhyolite and basalt. The LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb age indicates that the volcanic rocks were erupted at 512 Ma. The mafic rocks are calc-alkaline, enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE) and large-ion lithophile elements (LILE; Ba and U) and depleted in high-field strength elements (HFSE; Nb and Ta). These features together with their depleted isotopic signature (initial , to 3.7) suggest that they were likely derived from a depleted mantle source but mixed with crustal components while upwelling. The felsic rocks show an A-type affinity, with high alkalis and Rb/Sr and Ga/Al ratios; enriched in LILE (e.g., Rb, K, Th, U, and REE) and depleted in Ba, Sr, Nb, P, and Ti; and with fractionated REE patterns with strong negative Eu anomalies. The combination of the decoupling of values (−2.5 to −6.3) and values (+5.5 to +14.7) in the setting of subduction indicates that the felsic rocks were generated by partial melting of the juvenile crustal as a result of magma upwelling. The geochemical and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic characteristics, coupled with regional geology, indicate that the formation of the Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks involves an extensional regime associated with a subduction-related environment. The rifting of the back arc in response to the retreat of the subducting northern Altyn oceanic lithosphere may account for the Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks.

1. Introduction

Bimodal volcanism typically characterizes an extensional environment, which can occur within various tectonic settings, including continental rifts [1, 2], within-plate extensional settings [3–5], intraoceanic islands [6], ocean island arcs [7, 8], incipient back-arc depressions [9], mature island/active continental margins [7–9], and back arcs [9–12]. In each of these modern tectonic environments, the volcanic activity may give rise to specific features, such as lithological assemblage, geochemical signature, and type of associated ore deposits [12, 13]. Moreover, of all these various associations of mafic and felsic rocks, it is perhaps the A-type rhyolites with basalts that are the most enigmatic but may also prove to be the most instructive. Therefore, the recognition of such distinctive bimodal igneous suites in ancient orogenic belts can not only provide diagnostic geodynamic tracers for constraining the tectonic evolution of these belts but also document important information on crustal growth by magmatic underplating in continental interiors.

The Altyn Tagh Belt (ATB) marks the northern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau [14], lying between the Tarim block to the north, the Qaidam block, the Qilian orogen, and the Kunlun orogenic belt to the south [15, 16]. As one of the most important tectonic zones in northwestern China, the Altyn Tagh carved and dominated several tectonic units to match the eastern extrusion of the Tibetan Plateau [17–21]. In the last decade, the North Altyn Tagh region was recognized as an ophiolite [14, 22–24], with HP/UHP metamorphic rocks [25–27] and igneous rocks [28–32]. Previous studies show that three stages can be divided about the collisional orogeny in the Altyn area: the oceanic-continent collision stage [31, 32], the oceanic-continent subduction stage [33–35], and the postcollisional extension stage [36, 37]. At present, the mechanisms of the tectonic setting of the last two stages of magmatism are almost clear due to the zircon U-Pb ages from igneous rocks and metamorphic ages from HP/UHP metamorphic rocks [14, 31, 34, 35, 37, 38]. However, the oceanic-continental collision stage of magmatism in the north Altyn region is still unclear, which is subject to few systematic studies. In addition, the oceanic-continental subduction setting is always accompanied by the mixture of crustal and mantle magmatism, but most of the studies are focused on granite only. Recently, there was a set of bimodal volcanic rocks discovered in the NE of the North Altyn Tagh, which is helpful for studying the magmatic events and determining the timing of oceanic-continental subduction. In this paper, we present U-Pb zircon dating and geochemical and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic composition for Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks from the north Altyn region. Our aims are (1) to constrain petrogenesis and magma sources of bimodal volcanic rocks in the subduction setting and (2) to discuss the early Paleozoic evolution of the Altyn Tagh region.

2. Geological Background

The Altyn Mountain is located at the juncture of the Tarim Basin, the Qaidam Basin, and the Qilian orogen in Western China [19, 39–43], which plays a significant role in accommodating convergence between India and Eurasia [20, 44, 45]. The Altyn Tagh fault system is the first-order tectonic unit that marks the northern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and influences the geological evolution of surrounding areas. Pin and Paquette proposed that the sedimentation in the southern Tarim Basin was associated with this large-scale (>1600 km long) intracontinental fault system [8] (Figure 1(a)).

The tectonic units of the ATB have been divided into four different schemes (Figure 1(b)) [19, 47–49]: the North Altyn Tagh Archean complex (NAAC), the North Altyn Tagh subduction-collision complex (NASC), the Milanhe-Jinyanshan block (MJB), and the South Altyn Tagh subduction-collision complex (SATSC) (Figures 1(b) and 1(c)) [19, 25, 50]. In the NAAC region, the HP argillaceous rocks, glaucophane schist, and eclogite occurred belonging the HP-LT metamorphic belt. Previous studies showed that the phengite in the eclogite and the paragonite in the glaucophane schist have a yield of ³⁹Ar–⁴⁰Ar isochron ages of and , respectively [51]. These HP-LT metamorphic rocks are an important indicator of the palaeosubduction zone [52]. Moreover, there are many mafic-ultramafic plutons that are developed in the NASC, in which the ophiolite belt is dated at 524–437 Ma, with the features of the ocean island basalt, indicating that the oceanic crust may have developed probably in the Early Cambrian [14, 53, 54]. Researches about the age of felsic rocks in NASC show that they mainly ranged from 500 Ma to 420 Ma, which is associated with the setting of subduction to collision to postcollision [55–57]. The NASC is about 20 km wide, which extends from Hongliugou eastward to Lapeiquan for 150 km, and is controlled by the NEE-Altyn faults. In the Altyn region, the Paleozoic formation of the Zhuo’abulake and Simierbulake volcanic sedimentary rock series is located at the center of the Karadaban fault, which is fault-contacted to the Cenozoic and Archean strata. In addition, there is a suite of Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks that developed in the north of NASC, which occurred in the Zhuo’abulake Formation (Figure 2). Magmatism peaked at the early Paleozoic and stretched along the NE faults, which produced a series of granodioritic and granitic rocks. Chen et al. reported that the age of Kaladawan felsic volcanic rocks (zircon SHRIMP U-Pb method) was 485–477 Ma, and the characteristic of geochemistry indicated a setting of active continental margin [34]. Cui et al. (2010) verified the geochemistry of basic volcanic rocks in the Karadaban region. These rocks showed the features of tholeiitic basalt and conjectured an ocean island arc setting, which developed at the hanging wall of subduction in the early Paleozoic [58]. However, the timing of the subduction was still disputable.

3. Petrology and Sampling

In this study, 12 samples within the Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks were collected for geochemical analysis, 8 of them were used for Sr-Nd isotopic analysis, and analyses of Hf isotopes were made on zircon grains from samples KB-26 and KB-81 that were previously dated by laser ablation multiple collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Lithology of these samples are basalt and rhyolite (Figure 3).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

The rhyolite samples are gray to light yellow in color, massive, and porphyritic and rhyolitic in texture, which are interbedded with the basalt (Figure 3(a)). The felsic samples contain 10–15% plagioclase and quartz phenocrysts in a groundmass consisting of glassy cryptocrystalline material and feldspar and quartz (). The quartz is subhedral-anhedral, some of which has been rounded by dissolution (Figures 3(b) and 3(c)). The plagioclase is subhedral and lath-shaped (up to 0.5 mm) and hypidiomorphic in texture. The groundmass is typically a fine-grained assemblage of plagioclase, quartz, and muscovite. Muscovite is present as microscopic flakes (generally <0.1 mm), preferentially oriented aggregates, and disseminated single crystals with a preferred orientation (Figure 3(d)). The dark greyish-green basalts occur as massive layers with a porphyritic texture. The main phenocrysts are plagioclase and pyroxene (Figures 3(e) and 3(f)). The plagioclase is euhedral, tabular, and up to 0.3–0.4 mm, and the pyroxene occurs as thin tabular crystals up to 0.5–0.6 mm in size. The groundmass includes fine-grained plagioclase, pyroxene, and magnetite, which is characterized by the fasciculate variolitic structure of fibroid pyroxene and plagioclase (Figure 3(g)).

4. Analytical Methods

The Karadaban igneous samples were collected from adits and outcrops (Figure 2), which were selected for petrographic studies under thin sections. Some of the igneous samples were crushed to 200 meshes for major element, trace element, and Sr-Nd isotopic analyses; other samples were chosen for zircon U-Pb dating and Hf isotopic measurements.

4.1. Major and Trace Elements

Major and trace elements were analyzed in the Analytical Laboratory of Research Institute of Uranium Geology, Beijing (BRIUG). Major element compositions were measured by wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) on fused glass beads using a Philips PW2404 spectrometer; analytical uncertainties are less than ±1% for major elements. FeO content was determined by conventional wet chemical titration technique. Both trace element and REE abundance were analyzed using ICP-MS (Finnigan MAT Ltd.); uncertainties are less than ±5% for , ±3% for La and Lu, and ±2% for other REEs. The detailed analytical procedures are given in Wang et al. [59].

4.2. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were obtained by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM, Leo 1450VP, Germany) at the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences before in situ U-Pb and Hf isotopes analyses. Zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating was performed using a laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS) at the MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS), Beijing. The laser spot diameter and frequency were 40 μm and 10 Hz, respectively. The Harvard zircon 91500 was used as an external standard for zircon U-Th-Pb analyses and NIST610 as an external standard to calculate the contents of U, Th, and Pb. The ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ratios were calculated using the GLITTER program [60], and common Pb was corrected using the method of Andersen [61]. Age calculations and concordia plots were done using Isoplot (ver. 3.0) [62]. The details of the analytical techniques were documented by Hou et al. [63].

4.3. Lu-Hf Isotope Analyses

In situ zircon Hf isotopic analyses were carried out at the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, using a Neptune MC-ICP-MS with an ArF excimer laser ablation system. During analyses, the spot sizes of 32 and 63 μm and a laser repetition rate of 10 Hz with 100 mJ were used. During analyses, the ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf and ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios of standard zircon (91500) were (2σn, ) and 0.00031, similar to the commonly accepted ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf ratio of (1σ) measured using the solution method [64, 65].

4.4. Sr-Nd Isotopic Analyses

Samples for isotopic analysis were dissolved in Teflon bombs after being spiked with ⁸⁴Sr, ⁸⁷Rb, ¹⁵⁰Nd, and¹⁴⁷Sm tracers prior to HF+HNO₃ (with a ratio of 2 : 1) dissolution. Rubidium, Sr, Sm, and Nd were separated using conventional ion exchange procedures and measured using multicollector mass spectrometer (IsoProbe-T) at the Analytical Laboratory of BRIUG [66]. Procedural blanks were <100 pg for Sm and Nd and <500 pg for Rb and Sr. ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd were corrected for mass fractionation by normalization to , and⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios were normalized to . Typical within-run precision (2σ) for Sr and Nd was estimated to be ±0.000015. The measured values for the La Jolla and BCR-1 Nd standards and the NBS-607 Sr standard were (2σ) and (2σ), respectively, and the measured value during the period of data acquisition is (2σ).

5. Results

5.1. Major and Trace Elements

Twelve whole-rock major and trace element data are presented in Table 1. The loss on ignition (LOI) for the rocks was in the generally range from 0.74 to 3.68 wt.% (one sample at 6.87 wt.%), which probably reflects the presence of alteration-related hydration. Considering the potential modification from the concentrations of mobile components [67, 68], the effects of alteration and the mobility of the major and trace elements were evaluated prior to the geochemical and petrological investigation. Only immobile elements were used to classify rock samples and discuss their tectonic settings and petrogenesis.

The SiO₂ content of the volcanic rocks lie within a range from 44.74 to 76.14 wt.% and with a compositional gap at 46–68 wt.% SiO₂, which shows the bimodal feature (Table 1). Combining with the Zr/TiO₂-Nb/Y plot, the samples were identified as basalt and rhyolite (Figure 4(a)). Mafic rocks, on the TiO₂-Zr/P₂O₅ diagram (Figure 4(b)), show alkalic features, with relatively low K₂O contents (0.18–1.44 wt.%), high concentrations of ^TFe₂O₃ (11.49–17.12 wt.%), MgO (4.23–8.74 wt.%), and TiO₂ (1.79–3.75 wt.%). On a chondrite-normalized REE diagram, the samples exhibit slightly LREE enrichment (), with weak negative Eu anomalies () (Figure 5(a)). The primitive-mantle-normalized trace-element spider diagram shows slight enrichment in large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs; e.g., Rb, U, and Ba) with moderate to negative anomalies in high-field strength elements (HFSEs; e.g., Nb and Ta) (Figure 5(b)).

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The rhyolite exhibits a wide range of ^TFe₂O₃ content (2.07–8.30 wt.%), with low TiO₂ (0.19–0.65 wt.%) and P₂O₅ (0.03–0.10 wt.%) content, and high Al₂O₃ (9.60–14.57 wt.%). The A/NK and A/CNK values are 1.17–6.85 and 1.03–6.03, respectively, which classify the felsic samples as peraluminous. The felsic rock samples show values of 4.30–6.38 and are characterize by LREE enrichment with moderate HREE and LREE fractionation and show strong negative Eu anomalies (). They are also enriched in LILE (e.g., Th, U, and K) and are relatively depleted in HFSE and LREE, with remarkably negative Nd, P, and Ti anomalies (Figure 5(d)).

5.2. Zircon U-Pb Geochronology

Two samples were collected for LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating. The results are listed in Table 2. Zircons selected from the medium- to coarse-grained (sample KB-81) and medium- to fine-grained (sample KB-26) rhyolites are mostly display euhedral crystals with clear oscillatory zoning, euhedral, and up to 50 μm in length, with length to width ratios of nearly 2 : 1. Their CL images commonly show oscillatory zoning (Figure 6), which indicated a typical feature of magmatic zircons [73].

(a)

(b)

For sample KB-26, ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages determined from 24 analytical spots ranged from 502 to 523 Ma with a weighted mean age of (, ). For sample KB-81, ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages determined from 26 analytical spots ranged from 502 to 533 Ma with a weighted mean age of (, ). The age of 512 Ma represents the crystallization time of zircon in the rhyolite. According to the relationship between rhyolite and basalt in the outcrop, the two rocks are the contemporary volcanic rocks, which belong to the early Paleozoic.

5.3. In Situ Zircon Hf Isotopes

Zircon Lu-Hf isotopic data are listed in Table 3. Their initial values were calculated using their U-Pb zircon ages.

Fourteen Hf isotopic spot analyses were conducted on zircons from the rhyolite with radiogenic ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf(t) ratios varying from 0.282584 to 0.282827, with an average of 0.282694. Their and Hf single-stage model ages () range from 4.5 to 13.0 (with an average of 8.5) and 596–949 Ma (with an average of 790 Ma), respectively.

Fourteen in a total of fifteen Hf isotopic spot analyses were conducted on zircons from the rhyolite with radiogenic ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf(t) ratios varying from 0.282432 to 0.282870, with an average of 0.282728. Their and Hf single-stage model ages () range from 5.5 to 14.7 (with an average of 10.4) and 538–912 Ma (with an average of 710 Ma), respectively.

5.4. Sr-Nd Isotopic Compositions

The results of Sr-Nd analysis for the rhyolite samples are presented in Table 4. The whole-rock initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and values have been calculated at on the basis of the zircon U-Pb ages of this study (Figure 6). The initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for the rhyolite vary from 0.71140 to 0.73287 with ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios ranging between 0.51207 and 0.51231; they have values of 0.70895–0.71307, values of −6.3 to −2.5, and of 1.94–1.63 Ga. The initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for basalt vary from 0.70467 to 0.70864 with ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios ranging between 0.51269 and 0.51277; they have values of 0.70413–0.70817, values of 2.7 to 3.7, and of 1.79–1.59 Ga.

6. Discussion

6.1. Geochronological Framework

The North Altyn Tagh subduction-collision complex is one of the most important tectonic units in Western China. The study on Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks provides new evidences for the early Paleozoic tectonic evolution. In this study, we obtained the zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb age conducted on the rhyolite in the northern Altyn region, and the age of volcanic rocks was and , which belongs to early Cambrian. It is an important stage for researchers to study the evolution of the northern Altyn region.

Previous studies show that the magmatic activity in the Altyn area generated a series of magma evolution from basic to felsic rocks, which mainly occurred from 520~480 Ma [29, 30, 56, 76, 77]. The early Paleozoic tectonic belt of Hongliugou-Lapeiquan was recognized, and the results showed that the basic volcanic rocks are mainly with the features of MORB and OIB [78]. In this belt, the LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb age of the eutectic gabbro is , which can be classified as a subduction zone ophiolite, and mainly developed in the oceanic subduction belt [79]. Liu et al. (1998) reported that the whole-rock isochron age of the pillow basalt in Hongliuquan area is [80], which probably represented the forming age of ocean island basalt. Gao et al. (2011) obtained a LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb age of from the plagiogranite, which is intrusive in the ophiolite mélange. Chen et al. (2016) obtained the SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of 482~477 Ma from the felsic volcanic rocks in the Kaladawan area, which indicated that the characteristic of magmatism continued from 520 Ma to 477 Ma. In addition, there are high pressure-ultrahigh pressure (HP/LP) metamorphic zones in the tectonic belt, and the ³⁹Ar–⁴⁰Ar isochron age of from muscovite in the blueschist showed that the HP/LP was effected by the oceanic subduction. In this paper, we verified that the age of felsic volcanic rocks in Kaladaban is 512 Ma, corresponding with the setting of the north Altyn region. Combining with previous studies, we inferred that there was an ocean basin that existed at the north Altyn region in the late Neoproterozoic and the subduction activities probably continued until the late Ordovician. Since the oceanic crust subduction and collision, a series of subduction-related volcanic rocks were developed in the north Altyn region [34]. The magmatic activity in the northern Altyn region is multistage and probably successive from Neo-Proterozoic to Late Paleozoic.

6.2. Petrogenesis of Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

Bimodal volcanic rocks occur within a variety of tectonic settings, such as continental rifts, oceanic islands, zones of continental break-up, back-arc basins, orogenic belts, intraoceanic island arcs, and mature island arcs/active margins [9, 81, 82]. Recent studies have proposed two models of the genesis of bimodal volcanic rocks, depending on the cognate of the rhyolites and basalts (e.g., [83]). Since the mafic and felsic magmas originated from different sources, the trace element contents and the Sr and Nd isotopic compositions should differ between the basalts and the rhyolites [84, 85], thereby providing a reliable indicator for the genesis of bimodal volcanic rocks.

Samples from the northern Altyn region have experienced less alteration. The loss of ignition (LOI) values for the mafic and felsic volcanic rocks in the study area are 1.92–6.87 and 0.74–3.68 wt.%, respectively. This alteration is a result of low-temperature metamorphism related to intense deformation and fluid infiltration, whose effects are principally evident in the various types of abundance of the mobile elements such as K₂O, Rb, Ba, and Cs. However, the Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, REE, and HFSE elements are considered to be relatively immobile during the low-temperature alteration [65, 85–87]. Accordingly, the following discussion of the magma geochemical composition will focus on the immobile element and their ratios, as well as isotopic compositions.

6.2.1. Petrogenesis of the Mafic Rocks

The low silica content () and relatively high concentrations of ^TFe₂O₃ (11.49–17.12 wt.%), Cr (175–215 ppm), and Ni (94–118 ppm) content of the mafic rocks suggest that a mantle component played a prominent role in their genesis [88]. The slight lack of negative Eu anomalies on the chondrite-normalized REE diagrams indicates an absence of plagioclase fractionation during the process of magmatic evolution (Figures 5(a) and 5(b)). Meanwhile, the basalt displays a calc-alkaline nature and is enriched in LREEs and is also depleted in HFSEs (e.g., Nb and Ta). These features are similar to the subduction-related magmas [89]. However, the basaltic samples show MgO, Cr, Ni, V, and Co are negatively correlated with SiO₂, indicating that the basaltic magma is not primitive and possibly experienced some fractional crystallization of pyroxene. This is consistent with the presence of pyroxene as the dominant phenocryst in the basalt. The Karadaban basalt is enriched in Th (4.08–11.90 ppm) and positively correlated the plots of Nb/La and Nb/Th (Figure 7(a)). So we conjectured the involvement of Th-enriched component in its petrogenesis, which is due to the crustal contamination [37]. The continental crust is typically depleted in Nb and Ta [90], and the upper continental crust is enriched in La and Th, while the lower continental crust is not always enriched in Th [91]. Combining with the (Th/Ta)_PM vs. (La/Ta)_PM plot, the basalt samples define an UCC trend (Figure 7(b); [92]), implying that the contaminator is the highly evolved upper continental crust. It is noted that mafic magmas derived from the asthenosphere typically have La/Nb ratios of <1.5 and La/Ta ratios of <22, whereas those rocks from lithosphere have and [93, 94]. High La/Nb ratios (2.15–3.36), La/Ta ratios (36.57–53.49), and positive values (+2.7 to +3.7) indicate that the basalt was derived from a depleted mantle source but mixed with crustal components while upwelling. Mantle-derived magmas generally assimilate crustal materials during their ascent or their storage in a crustal magma chamber [95]. The Nb/U values (2.16–9.13) are lower than those of the source mantle (34), MORB (), or OIB (), further indicating that the basalt was affected by the crustal contamination [96]. Moreover, the mafic rocks from the Karadaban area are Nb-Ta depleted but enriched in Zr, Hf, and Ti (Figure 5(b)), yielding patterns similar to those expected for crustal material which suggests that these magmas assimilated crustal material during ascent [97].

(a)

(b)

Excluding the garnet residue in the source, the Nb/Yb and Ta/Yb ratios are effective in constraining the relative depletion of the mantle source when the degree of partial melting is even lower [70, 98]. Meanwhile, the Th/Yb ratio is a sensitive indicator of the inclusion of subduction zone materials in magma [87, 91]. The Th/Yb vs. Nb/Yb diagram (Figure 8) indicates that the basalt samples in the present study developed in an active continental margin, mainly close to the boundary between the E-MORB and OIB arrays. In summary, the geochemical and Sr-Nd isotope data demonstrate that the basalt of the Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks was derived from the depleted mantle source and experienced fractional crystallization, which was dominated by the fractionation of pyroxene and crustal contamination possibly by upper crustal materials.

6.2.2. Petrogenesis of the Felsic Rocks

Felsic volcanic rocks are characterized by high SiO₂, K₂O+Na₂O, and Fe₂O₃^T content; low Al₂O₃, CaO, and MgO content; depletion in HFSEs (e.g., Nb, Ta, P, Ti, and Hf); and strong negative Eu anomalies. These compositional features suggest that the samples in the present study originated from a source that lacked garnet but contained plagioclase in the residue, which indicates partial melting under low-pressure conditions [100, 101]. The absence of Ba, Nb, Ta, Sr, P, and Ti, as shown in the primitive-mantle-normalized trace-element spider diagram (Figure 5(d)), indicates similar trace element composition of A-type granites [101], and the felsic rocks generally display similar patterns to the basalts. However, the Nb/Ta and Th/Ta ratios of the felsic rocks are low, suggesting that the rhyolite is contaminated by upwelling basaltic magma. Furthermore, the Karadaban felsic samples fall into the A-type granite area on a Ga/Al-Zr plot (Figure 9(a)), and the Yb/Ta and Y/Nb ratios of the felsic samples are higher than those of OIB and close to IAB (Figure 9(b)). This indicated that the felsic rocks are A-type granites and exhibit similarities to the crust between OIB and IAB. Based on the subdivision of A-type granites [102], the Karadaban felsic samples are type A2 (Figure 10); however, the other granites (e.g., Highland 4337 and Hongliugou) show I-type features. It coincides with the amount of island arc granitoid developed in the north of Karadaban volcanic rocks [32, 57]. Hence, we suggest the Karadaban felsic rocks probably generated in an extensional environment.

(a)

(b)

Two types of process have been proposed for the origin of the silicic end-member in the bimodal magmatic suite, including (1) extensive fractional crystallization from a common mantle-derived magma parental to the mafic end-member, coupled with crustal contamination [103], and (2) crustal anatexis caused by mantle-derived mafic magma with distinct isotopic compositions [104–106]. In the case of the felsic rocks, the distinct difference documented by the whole-rock and zircon values between the basalt and felsic rocks indicated that the basalt could not have been produced by fractional crystallization of the coeval basalt. However, the negative (−6.3 to −2.5) and positive (4.5 to 14.7) of Karadaban felsic rocks showed Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling. The decoupling was probably effected by fluid/melt metasomatism in the subduction zone; the solubility of Nd was higher than that of Hf and led to the higher Nd/Hf ratios in the fluid/melt derived from the subducted plate [107, 108]. Coincidentally, from Cambrian to Ordovician, the whole north Altyn region was in a subduction setting, and a great deal of crustal growth occurred through arc-related magmatism (Table 5). For the Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling, the Hf isotope composition of zircon is more realistic than Nd. The positive zircon (4.5 to 14.7) and ages of 551 to 1186 Ma suggest a juvenile source rather than an old basement rocks. In addition, the wide range of indicated the mixture of the end-member during the magma evolution [109]. When the subduction metasomatized mantle-derived felsic crustal materials were rejuvenated, the newly formed magmas would inherit the decoupled Nd-Hf characteristics such as Karadaban rhyolite in accordance with A₂-type granites representing magmas derived from the continental crust which has been through a cycle of island-arc magmatism (Figures 11 and 12; [102]). As presented above, the continued extension of the crust and repeated underplating of subsequent mafic magma partial melting of the juvenile crust to generate felsic melts will ascend and erupt on the surface forming the Karadaban rhyolite.

Based on the discussion above, we conclude that the felsic volcanic rocks produced mainly by partial melting of the juvenile crustal and the origin melt source itself likely resulted from mantle-derived magmatic upwelling in an extensional setting, probably near the subduction-related active continental margin.

6.3. Tectonic Implications

The north Altyn region is a part of the Proto-Tethys tectonic domain. The Cambrian-Ordovician basic rocks and calc-alkaline granite in this region are interpreted to be island arc volcanic rocks [34, 35]. SHRIMP zircon ages of for a granodiorite and for arc granite indicate that the Cambrian to early Ordovician age is related to arc magmatism [30, 31]. In addition, bimodal volcanic rocks indicate an extensional setting in which they form, and several types of the extensional setting can account for the generation of bimodal volcanic suite, such as within-plate (continental rifting), passive continental marginal rifting, and incipient back-arc or continental active margins [9]. Hence, we propose that the Karadaban bimodal volcanism could be regarded as a significant indication of arc-related extensional tectonics.

On the one hand, according to the feature of trace element, the Karadaban volcanic suite displays some geochemical features of subduction-related melts, such as enrichment of LILEs but depletion in HFSEs and Sr-Nd-Hf isotope compositions of magmas. This suggests that the mixing of juvenile crust and mantle-derived magma, as well as the Karadaban bimodal volcanic suite, was formed in a subduction-related environment. The conclusion is further supported by a series of tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams. Based on the Hf-Th-Nb and Zr-Ti-Y ternary diagrams, the Karadaban rocks are classified as volcanic arc calc-alkaline basalts (Figure 13), which support the hypothesis that magmatic traces existed in the study area [99]. The Karadaban basalts exhibit both arc-like and within-plate basalt affinities, implying that they are probably formed within a back-arc tectonic setting. Generally, the Kaladaban bimodal volcanic suite in the north Altyn region is likely an analogue of the Dzungaria Ocean in the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt during the late Paleozoic [70]. The Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks resemble those of the back-arc side of the Dzungaria arc, which are believed to result from the initiation opening of the Dzungaria Ocean [70, 112]. On the other hand, regional geological data suggest that the final closure of the Altyn Ocean did not occur until the Early Ordovician and even until the later Ordovician in the north Altyn region [24, 35]. This demonstrates that the Kaladaban bimodal volcanism was produced in a back-arc environment (Lapeiquan back-arc basin), rather than in the postorogenic or intracontinental rifting setting.

The Altyn region is of great significance to realize the evolution of the Tibetan Plateau and the tectonic pattern of Western China. It developed as a unified back-arc basin system between the northern Altyn Complex and MJB before the formation of the Altyn Tagh, which is the northern boundary of the Proto-Tethys in China [113]. Three stages can be identified by previous studies: north Altyn Oceanic rifting (~750 Ma) [47, 114], north Altyn oceanic subduction (520~460 Ma) [34, 76, 77, 115], and oceanic consumption followed by continental collision (440~420 Ma) [29, 109, 116, 117]. This paper mainly focuses on the study of the bimodal volcanic rocks developed during the subduction of the northern Altyn Ocean. Combined with previous studies, the subduction is presumed to have occurred around 520~460 Ma (Table 5) [19, 77, 117] from the plentiful research of regional magmatic sequences to the mafic to intermediate to felsic rocks [31, 46, 109]. Based on our new data and previous studies, we propose a model for the tectonic evolutions of the north Altyn region during the Early Cambrian. This model emphasizes a southward subduction system of the oceanic lithosphere (Altyn Ocean) between the NASC and MJB. Beneath the MJB, its consolidated NASC margin during the early Paleozoic period and an arc and back-arc system developed, resembling the present western Pacific continental margin, appearing during the early Cambrian [24, 35, 46]. The Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks formed in the incipient stage of the Cambrian back-arc basin/extension. The system might have lasted into the Late Ordovician, during which the back-arc basin gradually became mature and finally closed during the Early Silurian. In conclusion, the north Altyn oceanic crust subducted towards the MJB and transmitted the latter into the active continental margin. The magma, which derived from the upwelling and mixing caused by subduction, eventually emplaced into the crust as Kaladaban bimodal volcanic rocks.

7. Conclusions

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study. (1)New LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating indicates that the newly discovered bimodal volcanic rocks in the northern Altyn Tagh area formed at ca. 512 Ma(2)Whole-rock geochemical and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic compositions suggest that the mafic rocks were derived mainly from a depleted mantle source but mixed with crustal components. The felsic rocks were probably generated by partial melting of the juvenile crustal as a result of basic magma upwelling(3)The generation of the Karadaban bimodal volcanic rocks was not only related to an active continental margin setting but also associated with the subduction-related back-arc extension environment

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by the Development and Research Centre of the China Geological Survey, Beijing (Grant No. 12120113090000).

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Table 1: major (%) and trace element (ppm) data for the volcanic rocks in the northern Altyn Tagh region. Supplementary Table 2: LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating data for Karadaban rhyolite (KB-26, KB-81) from the northern Altyn Tagh region. Supplementary Table 3: zircon Lu-Hf isotopic data for rhyolite (KB-26, KB-81) from the northern Altyn Tagh region. Supplementary Table 4: Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic compositions for the volcanic rocks in the northern Altyn Tagh region. (Supplementary Materials)

References

A. R. Duncan, A. J. Erlank, and J. Marsh, “Regional geochemistry of the Karoo igneous province,” Special Publication Geological Society of Africa, vol. 13, pp. 355–388, 1984.
View at: Google Scholar
C. Pin and F. Marini, “Early Ordovician continental break-up in Variscan Europe: Nd–Sr isotope and trace element evidence from bimodal igneous associations of the Southern Massif Central, France,” Lithos, vol. 29, no. 3-4, pp. 177–196, 1993.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Coulon, H. Maluski, C. Bollinger, and S. Wang, “Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanic rocks from central and southern Tibet:³⁹Ar-⁴⁰Ar dating, petrological characteristics and geodynamical significance,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 79, no. 3-4, pp. 281–302, 1986.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. D. Frost, B. R. Frost, K. R. Chamberlain, and B. R. Edwards, “Petrogenesis of the 1.43 Ga Sherman batholith, SE Wyoming, USA: a reduced, rapakivi-type anorogenic granite,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 40, no. 12, pp. 1771–1802, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Bonin, “Do coeval mafic and felsic magmas in post-collisional to within-plate regimes necessarily imply two contrasting, mantle and crustal, sources? A review,” Lithos, vol. 78, no. 1-2, pp. 1–24, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. T. Jolly, E. G. Lidiak, and A. P. Dickin, “Bimodal volcanism in northeast Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (Greater Antilles Island Arc): genetic links with Cretaceous subduction of the mid-Atlantic ridge Caribbean spur,” Lithos, vol. 103, no. 3-4, pp. 393–414, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. A. Frey, D. C. Gerlach, R. L. Hickey, L. Lopez-Escobar, and F. Munizaga-Villavicencio, “Petrogenesis of the Laguna del Maule volcanic complex, Chile (36° S),” Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 88, no. 1-2, pp. 133–149, 1984.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Pin and J. L. Paquette, “A mantle-derived bimodal suite in the Hercynian belt: Nd isotope and trace element evidence for a subduction-related rift origin of the late Devonian Brévenne metavolcanics, Massif Central (France),” Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 129, no. 2-3, pp. 222–238, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. G. Hochstaedter, J. B. Gill, M. Kusakabe et al., “Volcanism in the Sumisu Rift, I. Major element, volatile, and stable isotope geochemistry,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 100, no. 1-3, pp. 179–194, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Pearce, P. D. Kempton, G. M. Nowell, and S. R. Noble, “Hf-Nd element and isotope perspective on the nature and provenance of mantle and subduction components in Western Pacific Arc-Basin Systems,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 40, no. 11, pp. 1579–1611, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Ewart, K. D. Collerson, M. Regelous, J. I. Wendt, and Y. Niu, “Geochemical evolution within the Tonga-Kermadec-Lau arc-back-arc systems: the role of varying mantle wedge composition in space and time,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 331–368, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Shinjo and Y. Kato, “Geochemical constraints on the origin of bimodal magmatism at the Okinawa Trough, an incipient back-arc basin,” Lithos, vol. 54, no. 3-4, pp. 117–137, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Moraes, R. A. Fuck, M. M. Pimentel, S. M. C. L. Gioia, and A. M. G. Figueiredo, “Geochemistry and Sm–Nd isotopic characteristics of bimodal volcanic rocks of Juscelândia, Goiás, Brazil: Mesoproterozoic transition from continental rift to ocean basin,” Precambrian Research, vol. 125, no. 3-4, pp. 317–336, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. S. Yang, R. D. Shi, C. L. Wu, D. C. Su, S. Y. Chen, and X. B. Wang, “Petrology and SHRIMP age of the Hongliugou ophiolite at Milan, north Altyn, at the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 24, pp. 1567–1584, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. J. Liu, F. Neubauer, J. Genser et al., “Geochronology of the initiation and displacement of the Altyn strike-slip fault, western China,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 29, no. 2-3, pp. 243–252, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. S. Gai, L. Liu, L. Kang, W. Q. Yang, X. Y. Liao, and Y. W. Wang, “The origin and geologic significance of plagiogranite inophiolite belt at North Altyn Tagh,” Actor Petrologica Sinica, vol. 31, pp. 2549–2565, 2015.
View at: Google Scholar
B. C. Burchfiel, D. Quidong, P. Molnar et al., “Intracrustal detachment within zones of continental deformation,” Geology, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 748–752, 1989.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Meyer, P. Tapponnier, L. Bourjot et al., “Crustal thickening in Gansu-Qinghai, lithospheric mantle subduction, and oblique, strike-slip controlled growth of the Tibet Plateau,” Geophysical Journal International, vol. 135, no. 1, pp. 1–47, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Q. Xu, J. S. Yang, and J. X. Zhang, “A comparison between the tectonic units on the two sides of the Altyn sinistral strike-slip fault and the mechanism of lithospheric shearing,” Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 28, pp. 160–173, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
P. Tapponnier, X. Zhiqin, F. Roger et al., “Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau,” Science, vol. 294, no. 5547, pp. 1671–1677, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Yin, P. E. Rumelhart, R. Butler et al., “Tectonic history of the Altyn Tagh fault system in northern Tibet inferred from Cenozoic sedimentation,” Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 114, no. 10, pp. 1257–1295, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Y. Wu, D. Y. Sun, H. Li, B. M. Jahn, and S. Wilde, “A-type granites in northeastern China: age and geochemical constraints on their petrogenesis,” Chemical Geology, vol. 187, no. 1-2, pp. 143–173, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Q. Y. Xiu, H. F. Yu, Y. S. Liu et al., “Geology and zircon U-Pb age of pillow basalt at Qiashikansoy in Northern Altyn Tagh, W China,” Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 81, no. 6, p. 787, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
X. F. Gao, P. X. Xiao, L. Guo, Z. C. Dong, and R. G. Xi, “Opening of an early Paleozoic limited oceanic basin in the northern Altyn area: constraints from plagiogranites in the Hongliugou-Lapeiquan ophiolitic mélange,” Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 54, no. 12, pp. 1871–1879, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Liu, Z. Che, J. Luo, Y. Wang, and Z. Gao, “Recognition and implication of eclogite in the western Altun Mountains, Xinjiang,” Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 931–934, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. X. Zhang, F. C. Meng, S. Y. Yu, W. Chen, and S. Y. Chen, “³⁹Ar~⁴⁰Ar geochronology of high-pressure/low-temperature blueschist and eclogite in the North Altyn Tagh and their tectonic implications,” Geology in China, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 558–564, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
J. X. Zhang, S. Y. Yu, Y. S. Li, X. X. Yu, Y. H. Lin, and X. H. Mao, “Subduction, accretion and closure of Proto-Tethyan ocean: Early Paleozoic accretion/collision orogeny in the Altun-Qilian-north Qaidam orogenic system,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 31, pp. 3531–3554, 2015.
View at: Google Scholar
E. Cowgill, A. Yin, T. M. Harrison, and W. Xiao-Feng, “Reconstruction of the Altyn Tagh fault based on U-Pb geochronology: role of back thrusts, mantle sutures, and heterogeneous crustal strength in forming the Tibetan Plateau,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 108, no. B7, article 2346, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. E. Gehrels, A. Yin, and X. F. Wang, “Detrital-zircon geochronology of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau,” Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 115, no. 7, pp. 881–896, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. L. Wu, J. S. Yang, S. Z. Yao et al., “Characteristics of the granitoid complex and its zircon SHRIMP dating at the south margin of the Bashikaogong Basin, North Altun, NW China,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 21, pp. 846–858, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
F. B. Han, B. L. Chen, L. L. Cui et al., “Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age of intermediate-acid intrusive rocks in Kaladawan area, eastern Altyn Mountains, NW China, and its implications,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 28, pp. 2277–2291, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
L. T. Meng, B. L. Chen, D. Luo, Y. Wang, Y. Sun, and Y. Wu, “SHRIMP zircon U-Pb geochronology of Northern highland 4337 granodiorite in Kaladawan area of northern Altun mountains and its tectonic implications,” Journal of Jilin Universit, vol. 45, pp. 1757–1771, 2015.
View at: Google Scholar
X. X. Qi, H. B. Li, C. L. Wu et al., “Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating and its geological significance from the granodiorites of Chashkanzai in north Altyn,” Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 571–576, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
B. L. Chen, S. B. Li, and R. B. Jiang, “Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating of intermediate felsic volcanic rocks from the Kaladawan area, Altyn mountains and its tectonic environment,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 90, no. 4, pp. 708–727, 2016.
View at: Google Scholar
C. Liu, C. Wu, Y. Gao, M. Lei, and H. Qin, “Age, composition, and tectonic significance of Palaeozoic granites in the Altyn orogenic belt, China,” International Geology Review, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 131–154, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. T. Meng, B. L. Chen, Y. Wang et al., “Timing of early Paleozoic tectonic regime transition in north Altun: evidence from granite,” Macrotectonics and Mineralogy, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 295–307, 2016.
View at: Google Scholar
L. Kang, P. X. Xiao, X. F. Gao, R. G. Xi, and Z. C. Yang, “Age, petrogenesis and tectonic implications of early Devonian bimodal volcanic rocks in the south Altyn, NW China,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 111, pp. 733–750, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. X. Zhang, L. I. Huaikun, F. C. Meng, and Z. Q. Xiang, “Polyphase tectonothermal events recorded in “metamorphic basement” from the Altyn Tagh, the southeastern margin of the Tarim basin, western china: constraint from U-Pb zircon geochronology,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 27, pp. 23–46, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
J. W. Cui, Z. M. Tang, J. F. Deng et al., Altyn fault system, Geological Publ. House, Beijing, 1999.
Y. S. Pan, “Formation and up lifting of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,” Earth Science Frontiers, vol. 6, pp. 153–163, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
Z. C. Che, L. Liu, and J. H. Luo, Tectonics of China and adjacent region, Scienc Press, Beijing, 2002.
D. Cunningham, J. Zhang, and Y. Li, “Late Cenozoic transpressional mountain building directly north of the Altyn Tagh fault in the Sanweishan and Nanjieshan, north Tibetan foreland, China,” Tectonophysics, vol. 687, pp. 111–128, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. Bao, X. Long, C. Yuan et al., “Paleozoic adakitic rocks in the northern Altyn Tagh, Northwest China: evidence for progressive crustal thickening beneath the Dunhuang block,” Lithos, vol. 272-273, pp. 1–15, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. R. Sobel, N. Arnaud, M. Jolivet, B. D. Ritts, and M. Brunel, “Jurassic to cenozoic exhumation history of the Altyn Tagh range, northwest China, constrained by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and apatite fission track thermochronology,” Paleozoic and Mesozoic Tectonic Evolution of Central and Eastern Asia: From Continental Assembly to Intracontinental Deformation, vol. 194, p. 247, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Li, Z. Zhang, W. Tang, K. Li, Z. Luo, and J. Li, “Provenance of Oligocene–Miocene sediments in the Subei area, eastern Altyn Tagh fault and its geological implications: evidence from detrital zircons LA-ICP-MS U–Pb chronology,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 87, pp. 130–140, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Wu, Z. L. Chen, B. L. Chen et al., “Geochemistry, zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating and Hf isotopic compositions of the monzogranite from the Southern Kaladawan of north Altyn and their implications for crust-mantle interaction,” Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 6, pp. 1227–1243, 2017.
View at: Google Scholar
L. Liu, Y. Sun, P. Xiao et al., “Discovery of ultrahigh-pressure magnesite-bearing garnet lher- zolite (>3.8 GPa) in the Altyn Tagh, Northwest China,” Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 47, no. 11, pp. 881–886, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. S. Liu, H. F. Yu, H. T. Xin, S. N. Lu, Q. Y. Xiu, and Q. Li, “Tectonic units division and Precambrian significant geological events in Altyn Tagh mountain, China,” Geological Bulletin of China, vol. 28, pp. 1430–1438, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
X. F. Qin, J. Li, J. P. Lu et al., “Tectonic evolution of the western segment of the Altyn Tagh collisional orogen, northwest China,” Geological Bulletin of China, vol. 25, pp. 104–112, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
L. Liu, C. Wang, D. Chen, A. Zhang, and J. G. Liou, “Petrology and geochronology of HP–UHP rocks from the South Altyn Tagh, northwestern China,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 35, no. 3-4, pp. 232–244, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Zhang, Z. Zhang, Z. Xu, J. Yang, and J. Cui, “Petrology and geochronology of eclogites from the western segment of the Altyn Tagh, Northwestern China,” Lithos, vol. 56, no. 2-3, pp. 187–206, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. G. Ernst, “Do mineral parageneses reflect unusually high-pressure conditions of Franciscan metamorphism?” American Journal of Science, vol. 270, no. 2, pp. 81–108, 1971.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. C. Zhang, J. Y. Gong, X. F. Wang, Z. J. Guo, and C. Zhang, “⁴⁰Ar-³⁹Ar and fission-track analysis of eastern segment of Altyn Tagh fault and its geological significance,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 24, pp. 1041–1053, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
S. L. Dong, Z. Li, J. Gao, and L. Zhu, “Progress of studies on early Paleozoic tectonic framework and crystalline rock geochronology in Altun-Qilian-Kunlun orogeny,” Geological Review, vol. 59, pp. 731–746, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
X. H. Chen, G. George, X. F. Wang, F. Yang, and Z. L. Chen, “Granite from north Altyn Tagh, NW China: U-Pb geochronology and tectonic setting,” Bulletin of Mineralogy Petrology and Geochemistry, vol. 22, pp. 294–298, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
C. Wu, S. Yao, L. Zeng et al., “Bashikaogong-Shimierbulake granitic complex, north Altun, NW China: geochemistry and zircon SHRIMP ages,” Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences, vol. 49, no. 12, pp. 1233–1251, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Kang, L. Liu, Y. T. Cao, C. W. Wang, and W. Q. Yang, “Geochemistry, zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb ages and Hf isotopes of Hongliugou moyite from north Altyn Tagh tectonic belt,” Geological Bulletin of China, vol. 30, pp. 1066–1076, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
L. L. Cui, B. L. Chen, N. Chen, Z. L. Chen, and W. J. Ding, “Geochemistry and genesis of basic-intermediate volcanic rocks from Kaladawan, east Altyn Tagh mountains,” Journal of Geomechanics, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 96–107, 2010.
View at: Google Scholar
W. Wang, S. Liu, X. Bai et al., “Geochemistry and zircon U–Pb–Hf isotopes of the late Paleoproterozoic Jianping diorite–monzonite–syenite suite of the North China Craton: implications for petrogenesis and geodynamic setting,” Lithos, vol. 162-163, pp. 175–194, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Van Achterbergh, C. G. Ryan, S. E. Jackson, and W. L. Griffin, “Data reduction software for LA-ICP-MS. Laser-Ablation-ICP-Mass Spectrom,” Journal of Earth Science, vol. 29, pp. 239–243, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
T. Andersen, “Correction of common lead in U-Pb analyses that do not report ²⁰⁴Pb,” Chemical Geology, vol. 192, no. 1-2, pp. 59–79, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Ludwig, User's Manual for Isoplot 3.00: A Geochronological Toolkit for Microsoft Excel, Kenneth R. Ludwig, 2003.
K. J. Hou, Y. Tian, and Y. Li, “In situ U-Pb zircon dating using laser ablation-multi ion counting-ICP-MS,” Mineral Deposits, vol. 28, pp. 481–492, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
A. Goolaerts, N. Mattielli, J. de Jong, D. Weis, and J. S. Scoates, “Hf and Lu isotopic reference values for the zircon standard 91500 by MC-ICP-MS,” Chemical Geology, vol. 206, no. 1-2, pp. 1–9, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. A. Wood, J. L. Joron, and M. Treuil, “A re-appraisal of the use of trace elements to classify and discriminate between magma series erupted in different tectonic settings,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 326–336, 1979.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. J. Zhao, J. W. Mao, J. F. Xiang, Z. H. Zhou, K. T. Wei, and Y. F. Ke, “Mineralogy and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions of quartz diorite in Tonglushan deposit, Hubei province,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 26, pp. 768–784, 2010.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Amelin, D. C. Lee, A. N. Halliday, and R. T. Pidgeon, “Nature of the Earth’s earliest crust from Hafnium isotopes in single detrital zircons,” Nature, vol. 399, no. 6733, pp. 252–255, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. L. Romer, H. J. Förster, and C. Breitkreuz, “Intracontinental extensional magmatism with a subduction fingerprint: the late Carboniferous Halle Volcanic Complex (Germany),” Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 141, no. 2, pp. 201–221, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Winchester and P. A. Floyd, “Geochemical discrimination of different magma series and their differentiation products using immobile elements,” Chemical Geology, vol. 20, pp. 325–343, 1977.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Yang, L. Miao, F. Zhang et al., “Zircon age and geochemistry of the Tost bimodal volcanic rocks: constraints on the early carboniferous tectonic evolution of the South Mongolia,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 120, pp. 29–42, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S.-S. Sun and W. F. McDonough, “Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts: implications for mantle composition and processes,” Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 313–345, 1989.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Y. Wu, B. M. Jahn, S. Wilde, and D. Y. Sun, “Phanerozoic crustal growth: U–Pb and Sr–Nd isotopic evidence from the granites in northeastern China,” Tectonophysics, vol. 328, no. 1-2, pp. 89–113, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. W. O. Hoskin and U. Schaltegger, “The composition of zircon and igneous and metamorphic petrogenesis,” Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 27–62, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. X. Hao, B. L. Chen, Z. L. Chen et al., “Geochemical characteristics of basalts from Kaladawan in east Altun mountains of Xinjiang and their implications,” Acta Geoscientica Sinica, vol. 34, pp. 307–317, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
K. Ni, B. Wu, and X. T. Ye, “Zircon U-Pb dating of rhyolite of the Lapeiquan formation in north Altyn Tagh, Xinjiang and its geological implications,” East China Geology, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 168–174, 2017.
View at: Google Scholar
J. Hao, E. Q. Wang, X. H. Liu, and H. Q. Sang, “Jinyanshan collisional oroginic belt of the early Paleozoic in the Altun Mountains: evidence from single zircon U-Pb and Ar⁴⁰/Ar³⁹ isotopic dating for the arc magmatite and ophiolitic mélange,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 2743–2752, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
Z. W. Zhang, G. Huang, H. M. Li, and W. F. Zhang, “LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb geochronology and geochemistry of gabbro and diorite from Qilesayi pluton in Lapeiquan area of northern Altyn mountains and their tectonic implications,” Acta Petrologica Et Mineralogica, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 13–27, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
J. Wu, C. L. Lan, J. L. Li, and L. J. Yu, “Geochemical evidence of MORB and OIB combination in Hongliugou ophiolite melanges, Altun fault belt,” Acta Petrologica Et Mineralogica, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 24–30, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
J. X. Zhang, S. Y. Yu, F. C. Meng, and J. P. Li, “Paired high-pressure granulite and eclogite in collision orogens and their geodynamic implications,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 2050–2066, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
L. Liu, Z. C. Che, Y. Wang, J. H. Luo, J. Q. Wang, and Z. J. Gao, “Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating and its geological significance from the granodiorites of Chashkanzai in north Altyn,” Chinese Science Bulletin, vol. 43, no. 8, pp. 880–883, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. P. Wu, K. Q. Chen, and L. Zhong, “Geological feature and ore-controlling factors of Kaladawan copper-polymetal deposit in northern side of Altyn Fault, Xinjiang,” Journal of Earth Sciences and Environment, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 12–18, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Wang, Q. Qian, L. Liu, and Q. Zhang, “Major geochemical characteristics of bimodal volcanic rocks in different geochemical environments,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 16, pp. 169–173, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Chen, Z. C. Zhang, K. Li, Z. W. Luo, W. H. Tang, and Q. G. Li, “Geochronology, geochemistry and geological significance of the Permian bimodal volcanic rocks in Xi Ujimqin Banner, Inner Mongolia,” Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Pekinensis, vol. 50, pp. 843–858, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar
B. R. Doe, W. P. Leeman, R. L. Christiansen, and C. E. Hedge, “Lead and strontium isotopes and related trace elements as genetic tracers in the upper Cenozoic rhyolite-basalt association of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 87, no. B6, pp. 4785–4806, 1982.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. R. Davies and R. Macdonald, “Crustal influences in the petrogenesis of the Naivasha basalt-comendite complex: combined trace element and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope constraints,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 1009–1031, 1987.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. E. Beswick, “Some geochemical aspects of alteration and genetic relations in komatiitic suites,” Komatiities, vol. 1, pp. 283–308, 1982.
View at: Google Scholar
R. J. Stern, M. J. Fouch, and S. L. Klemperer, “An overview of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction factory,” Inside the Subduction Factory, vol. 138, pp. 175–222, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. G. Mattinson, C. A. Menold, J. X. Zhang, and D. K. Bird, “High and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in the north Qaidam and south Altyn Terranes, Western China,” International Geology Review, vol. 49, no. 11, pp. 969–995, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Pearce and R. J. Stern, “Origin of back-arc basin magmas: trace element and isotope perspectives. Back-arc spreading systems,” Geological, Biological, Chemical, and Physical Interactions, pp. 63–86, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
R. L. Rudnick and D. M. Fountain, “Nature and composition of the continental crust: a lower crustal perspective,” Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 267–310, 1995.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. G. Barth, W. F. McDonough, and R. L. Rudnick, “Tracking the budget of Nb and Ta in the continental crust,” Chemical Geology, vol. 165, no. 3-4, pp. 197–213, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Ingle, D. Weis, J. S. Scoates, and F. A. Frey, “Relationship between the early Kerguelen plume and continental flood basalts of the paleo-Eastern Gondwanan margins,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 197, no. 1-2, pp. 35–50, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. G. Fitton, D. James, P. D. Kempton, D. S. Ormerod, and W. P. Leeman, “The role of lithospheric mantle in the generation of late Cenozoic basic magmas in the western United States,” in Oceanic and Continental Lithosphere: Similarities and Differences, K. G. Cox and M. A. Menzies, Eds., Journal of Petrology (Special Lithosphere Issue), pp. 331–349, 1988.
View at: Google Scholar
L. Li, S. Lin, G. Xing et al., “Geochemistry and tectonic implications of late Mesoproterozoic alkaline bimodal volcanic rocks from the Tieshajie group in the southeastern Yangtze Block, South China,” Precambrian Research, vol. 230, pp. 179–192, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Zhang, C. Yuan, X. Long et al., “Carboniferous bimodal volcanic rocks in the eastern Tianshan, NW China: evidence for arc rifting,” Gondwana Research, vol. 43, pp. 92–106, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. W. Hofmann, “Mantle geochemistry: the message from oceanic volcanism,” Nature, vol. 385, no. 6613, pp. 219–229, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. E. Huppert and R. S. J. Sparks, “The generation of granitic magmas by intrusion of basalt into continental crust,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 599–624, 1988.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Pearce, R. J. Stern, S. H. Bloomer, and P. Fryer, “Geochemical mapping of the Mariana arc-basin system: Implications for the nature and distribution of subduction components,” Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol. 6, no. 7, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. M. Wang, L. Zhang, H. Chen et al., “Geochronology, geochemistry and tectonic significance of the ore-associated granites at the kaladawan Fe–Mo ore field (Altyn), NW China,” Ore Geology Reviews, vol. 100, pp. 457–470, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Petford and M. Atherton, “Na-rich partial melts from newly underplated basaltic crust: the Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Peru,” Journal of Petrology, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1491–1521, 1996.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Q. Zhang, Y. Wang, C. D. Li, Y. L. Wang, W. J. Jin, and X. Q. Jia, “Granite classification on the basis of Sr and Yb contents and its implications,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 22, pp. 2249–2269, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
G. N. Eby, “Chemical subdivision of the A-type granitoids: petrogenetic and tectonic implications,” Geology, vol. 20, no. 7, p. 641, 1992.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Ş. C. Genç and O. Tüysüz, “Tectonic setting of the Jurassic bimodal magmatism in the Sakarya Zone (central and western Pontides), northern Turkey: a geochemical and isotopic approach,” Lithos, vol. 118, no. 1-2, pp. 95–111, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Zhu, G. Pan, X. Mo et al., “Petrogenesis of volcanic rocks in the Sangxiu Formation, central segment of Tethyan Himalaya: a probable example of plume–lithosphere interaction,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 29, no. 2-3, pp. 320–335, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. C. Zhu, Z. D. Zhao, Y. Niu et al., “Cambrian bimodal volcanism in the Lhasa terrane, southern Tibet: record of an early Paleozoic Andean-type magmatic arc in the Australian proto-Tethyan margin,” Chemical Geology, vol. 328, pp. 290–308, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. S. Jones, C. G. Barnes, W. R. Premo, and A. W. Snoke, “The geochemistry and petrogenesis of the Paleoproterozoic Green Mountain arc: a composite(?), bimodal, oceanic, fringing arc,” Precambrian Research, vol. 185, no. 3-4, pp. 231–249, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. D. Vervoort, P. J. Patchett, J. Blichert-Toft, and F. Albarède, “Relationships between Lu–Hf and Sm–Nd isotopic systems in the global sedimentary system,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 168, no. 1-2, pp. 79–99, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. Xin, F. Y. Sun, L. Li et al., “The Wulonggou metaluminous A 2-type granites in the eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China: rejuvenation of subduction-related felsic crust and implications for post-collision extension,” Lithos, vol. 312-313, pp. 108–127, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Y. Wu, X. H. Li, Y. F. Zheng, and S. Gao, “Lu-Hf isotopic systematics and their applications in petrology,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 23, pp. 185–220, 2007.
View at: Google Scholar
J. B. Whalen, K. L. Currie, and B. W. Chappell, “A-type granites: geochemical characteristics, discrimination and petrogenesis,” Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 407–419, 1987.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. M. Jahn, F. Wu, C. H. Lo, and C. H. Tsai, “Crust–mantle interaction induced by deep subduction of the continental crust: geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic evidence from post-collisional mafic–ultramafic intrusions of the northern Dabie complex, central China,” Chemical Geology, vol. 157, no. 1-2, pp. 119–146, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Chen, L. Shu, M. Santosh, and X. Zhao, “Island arc-type bimodal magmatism in the eastern Tianshan Belt, Northwest China: geochemistry, zircon U–Pb geochronology and implications for the Paleozoic crustal evolution in Central Asia,” Lithos, vol. 168-169, pp. 48–66, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. C. Meng, J. X. Zhang, S. Y. Yu, and S. Y. Chen, “The early Paleozoic pillow basalt in Northern Altyn, Western China and it tectonic implications,” Acta Geologica Sinica, vol. 84, no. 7, pp. 981–990, 2010.
View at: Google Scholar
X. H. Ge and J. Liu, “Formation and tectonic background of the northern Qilian orogenic belt,” Earth Science Frontiers, vol. 6, pp. 223–230, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
B. L. Chen, X. F. Wang, and F. Yang, “Analysis of ore-controlling structure of the Xorkol Beishan Cu-Ag deposit in the northern Altun marginal area, northwestern China,” Journal of Geomechanics, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 232–240, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Yang, X. H. Chen, G. Gehrels et al., “Early Paleozoic magmatism and gold metallogenesis in Altyn Mountains, northwest China,” Mineral Deposits, vol. 23, pp. 464–472, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C. L. Wu, Y. H. Gao, M. Lei et al., “Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating, Lu-Hf isotopic characteristics and petrogenesis of the Palaeozoic granites in Mangya area, southern Altun, NW China,” Acta Petrologica Sinica, vol. 30, pp. 2297–2323, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2019 Wen-Bin Jia et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

1350

Downloads

1344

Citations