Lifestyle Characteristics and Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: A Population-Based Study in Albania
Table 3
Association of demographic, socioeconomic, and lifestyle factors with GERD; age-adjusted and multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) from binary logistic regression.
Variable
Model 1a
Model 2b
Model 3c
OR (95% CI)
P
OR (95% CI)
P
OR (95% CI)
P
Sex
Men Women
1.27 (0.83–1.94) 1.00 (reference)
0.270
1.36 (0.88–2.10) 1.00 (reference)
0.168
0.32 (0.17–0.59) 1.00 (reference)
<0.001
Age ≤40 years >40 years
—
—
1.00 (reference) 1.56 (0.92–2.65)
0.099
1.00 (reference) 1.89 (0.96–3.76)
0.067
Educational level
0.147 (2)
d
0.063 (2)
Low (0–8) years
1.94 (1.08–3.51)
0.028
2.06 (1.12–3.77)
0.020
Middle (9–12) years
1.42 (0.87–2.33)
0.162
1.45 (0.87–2.39)
0.151
High (≥13 years)
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
Income level
0.655 (2)
0.854 (2)
Low
1.41 (0.67–2.96)
0.371
1.22 (0.57–2.59)
0.612
Middle
1.22 (0.70–2.13)
0.483
1.15 (0.66–2.02)
0.622
High
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
BMI
<0.001 (2)
<0.001 (2)
0.002 (2)
<25
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
25–29.9
1.79 (1.00–3.21)
0.050
1.58 (0.87–2.85)
0.130
1.71 (0.86–3.38)
0.124
≥30
3.97 (2.12–7.41)
<0.001
3.74 (1.99–7.01)
<0.001
3.79 (1.79–8.03)
<0.001
Smoking
<0.001 (2)
<0.001 (2)
<0.001 (2)
Current smoker
13.36 (7.7–23.2)
<0.001
23.6 (12.3–45.3)
<0.001
29.3 (13.9–61.2)
<0.001
Former smoker
6.03 (3.06–11.8)
<0.001
12.68 (5.9–27.2)
<0.001
9.79 (4.22–22.7)
<0.001
Never smoker
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
Alcohol consumption
No/Occasional intake Moderate/Heavy intake
1.00 (reference) 1.79 (1.13–2.83)
0.013
1.00 (reference) 1.83 (1.10–3.06)
0.021
Physical activity
<0.001(2)
<0.001 (2)
<0.001 (2)
Low
5.79 (2.46–13.6)
<0.001
5.47 (2.32–12.9)
<0.001
7.03 (2.68–18.4)
<0.001
Moderate
3.10 (1.37–7.01)
0.007
3.01 (1.33–6.84)
0.008
2.75 (1.11–6.78)
0.028
High
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
Fried food frequency
<0.001 (2)
<0.001 (2)
0.001 (2)
Frequent
4.13 (2.28–7.48)
<0.001
3.57 (1.97–6.49)
<0.001
3.01 (1.52–6.20)
0.002
Moderate
1.91 (0.99–3.69)
0.055
1.69 (0.86–3.32)
0.128
1.21 (0.55–2.65)
0.634
Not frequent
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
Meat consumption frequency
0.057 (2)
0.060 (2)
Frequent
3.52 (0.83–14.8)
0.087
3.93 (0.91–17.0)
0.068
Moderate
1.79 (0.36–8.81)
0.476
2.09 (0.41–10.6)
0.372
Not frequent
1.00 (reference)
—
1.00 (reference)
—
Model 1: adjusted for age. Model 2: simultaneously adjusted for age, sex, and socioeconomic variables (education and income level). Model 3: adjusted for age, sex, socioeconomic variables, and behavioral factors (smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, frequency of meat consumption, frequency of fired food consumption, and body mass index). All variables were entered in a backward stepwise elimination procedure with a P value to exit set at <0.10. Empty cells refer to the variables excluded from the final model. Overall P value and degrees of freedom (in parentheses).
