International Journal of Endocrinology

Review Article

Peripheral Pathways in the Food-Intake Control towards the Adipose-Intestinal Missing Link

Table 1

Major peripheral signals involved in food intake regulation.


	Hormone	Site of secretion	Major receptors	Major actions

Intestinal	Amylin	Pancreatic cells		Inhibits gastric secretion. Delays gastric emptying. Decreases blood glucose.
	Cholecystokinin	Intestinal Icells	CCK2	Gall bladder contraction. Delays gastric emptying. Pancreatic enzyme contraction.
	Endocannabinoid system	Postsynaptic cell	CB1, CB2	Modulates appetite besides a variety of physiological processes.
	Ghrelin	Gastric fundal A cells	GHS–R	Increases gastric motility. Growth of hormone release.
	Glucagon	Pancreatic cells	Glucagon	Gluconeogenesis. Glycogenolysis.
	Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)	Gastrointestinal L cells	GLP–1	Glucose-dependent insulin release. Delays gastric emptying. Vagal and CNS effects.
	Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP)	K cells in duodenum and jejunum	GIP–R	Stimulates insulin synthesis and secretion.
	Oxyntomodulin	Gastrointestinal L cells	GLP–1	Glucose-dependent insulin release. Delays gastric emptying. Vagal and CNS effects.
	Pancreatic polypeptide	Pancreatic PP cells	Y₄	Delays gastric emptying.
	Peptide YY (PYY)	Gastrointestinal L cells	Y₂	Delays gastric emptying. Vagal and CNS effects.
Adipose	Adiponectin	Adipocyte, skeletal muscle, endothelial cells, and cardiomyocytes	AdipoR1 AdipoR2 T-cadherin	Adiponectin, via AMPK phosphorylation, increases insulin sensitivity, fatty acid oxidation and reduces the synthesis of glucose in the liver and other tissues.
	Leptin	Adipocyte	LEPR	Increases POMC anorexigenic signals. Inhibits NPY, stimulating appetite.
	Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)	Endothelium, adipocyte	Binds to (tPA)	Inhibitor of fibrinolysis.
	Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-)	Adipocyte	Tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)	Insulin resistance.

AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase, CNS: central nervous system, NPY: neuropeptide Y, POMC: proopiomelanocortin, and tPA: tissue plasminogen activator.