Structures of Astaxanthin and Their Consequences for Therapeutic Application

Table 2

Natural sources of astaxanthin.

Source	Example of species	Astaxanthin concentration; (mg kg^-1)	Primary optical isomer	Reference
Microorganism
Phytoplankton	Haematococcus pluvialis NIES-144	98,000 d.w.	3S,3S	[48]
	Haemotococcus lacustris	43,100 d.w.	3S,3S	[49]
	Haematococcus pluvialis CCAP-34/7	22,700 d.w.	3S,3S	[50]
	Neochloris wimmeri CCAP-213/4	19,200 d.w.	—	[50]
	Protosiphon botryoides SAG-731/1a	14,300 d.w.	—	[50]
	Scotiellopsis oocystiformis SAG-277/1	10,900 d.w.	—	[50]
	Chlorella zofingiensis SAG-211/14	6800 d.w.	—	[50]
	Scenedesmus vacuolatus SAG-211/15	2700 d.w.	—	[50]
	Chlorococcum sp.	4230 d.w.	—	[51]
	Chromochloris zofingiensis	13,100 d.w.	—	[52]
	Euglena sanguinea	—	3S,3S	[53]
Zooplankton	Calanus helgolandicus	50–220 d.w.	—	[54]
	Acartia bifilosa	477.4 d.w.	—	[55]
	Calanus finmarchicus	100–500 d.w.	3S,3S	[56, 57]
	Calanus glacialis	100–500 d.w.	—	[56]
	Calanus hyperboreus	100–500 d.w.	—	[56]
	Calanus pacificus	—	—	[58]
	Diaptomus nevadensis	—	—	[58]
	Neocalanus tonsus	—	—	[58]
	Amphiascoides atopus	619 d.w.	—	[59]
	Acartia bifilosa	293–487 d.w.	—	[60]
	Pseudocalanus acuspes	239–305 d.w.	—	[60]
	Idotea metallica	—	—	[61]
Bacteria	Agrobacterium aurantiacum	140 d.w.	3S,3S	[62]
	Brevundimonas sp. strain N-5	837 d.w.	3S,3S	[63]
	Sphingomicrobium astaxanthinifaciens	40 d.w.	—	[64]
	Paracoccus bogoriensis	400 w.w.	—	[65]
	Brevundimonas spp.	27.6–365 d.w.	3S,3S	[66]
	Brevundimonas sp. M7	1300 d.w.	3S,3S	[66]
	Sphingomonas astaxanthinifaciens	690 d.w.	—	[66]
	Altererythrobacter ishigakiensis	—	—	[67]
	Paracoccus haeundaensis	—	—	[68]
	Paracoccus carotinifaciens	—	3S,3S	[69]
Yeast	Phaffia rhodozyma PR 190	970 d.w.	3R,3R	[70]
	Phaffia rhodozyma UCD 67-210	387 d.w.	3R,3R	[71]
	Candida utilis	400 d.w.	—	[72]
Archaea	Halobacterium salinarium NRC-1	265 d.w.	—	[73]
	Haloarcula hispanica ATCC 33960	17 d.w.	—	[73]
Chromista	Thraustochytrium sp. CHN-3	2800 d.w.	—	[74]
Crustaceans
Shrimp	Marsupenaeus japonicus	418 d.w.	—	[75]
	Litopenaeus setiferus	48.3 w.w.	—	[76]
	Penaeus sp.	0.96 w.w. (only head)	—	[77]
	Litopenaeus vannamei	11.3–31.8 w.w.	3R,3S	[57, 78]
	Penaeus monodon	24.9–67.5 d.w.	3R,3S	[57, 79]
	Pandalus borealis	30.9–147.7 w.w.	3R,3S	[57, 80, 81]
Crawfish	Procambarus clarkii	78.5–197.9 d.w. (only shell)	—	[82]
Crabs	Pleuroncodes planipes	—	—	[83]
	Eriocheir sinensis	3.5–4.7 d.w. (only carapace)	—	[84]
	Chionoecetes opilio	119.6 d.w.	—	[81]
Lobster	Jasus lalandii	13 w.w.	—	[85]
Antarctic krill	Euphausia superba	—	3R,3R	[80]
Fishes
Salmonids	Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)	6–8 w.w.	3S,3S	[3]
	Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)	26–38 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)	5.4 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)	3–5 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)	10–21 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou)	4.6 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)	4–7 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)	24 w.w.	3S,3S	[86]
	Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)	8.6 w.w.	—	[86]

d.w., dry weight; w.w., wet weight.