Review Article
Developmental Programming of Hypertension and Kidney Disease
Table 2
Effect of environmental factors on kidney development and programming of renal dysfunction and blood pressure.
| Factors | Phenotype | References |
| Maternal low-protein diet | LBW, decreased nephron number, and salt-sensitive hypertension | [16, 38, 55–58] | Maternal cigarette smoking | Hypertension | [59–63] | Alcohol use | Decreased nephron number | [64–67] | Steroids | Decreased nephron number and hypertension | [68–71] | Vitamin A deficiency | Rat-renal hypoplasia | [72] | Iron deficiency | Rat-decreased birth weight and hypertension Rat-decreased nephron number and hypertension | [73, 74] | High-salt diet | Rat-hypertension in an offspring, children-increased responsiveness of blood pressure to changes in dietary salt intake | [75, 76] | Glucocorticoid exposure | Decreased GFR and reduced number of nephrons hypertension | [56, 68, 77–79] | NSAIDs | Abnormal glomerular and tubular development | [80–82] | ACEi/ARBs | Renal tubular dysgenesis and hypotension | [83] | COX-2 exposure | Decreased nephron number and hypertension | [84, 85] | GRN363S | Obesity and increased insulin resistance | [86, 87] | GRER22/23K | Protect against insulin resistance | [88] | Testosterone | Decreased nephron number and proteinuria, hypertension | [82, 89] | Uteroplacental insufficiency | Renal hypoplasia | [36, 52, 90–92] |
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LBW: low birth weight, GFR: glomerular filtration rate, NSAIDS: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ACEi: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, ARBs: angiotensin receptor blockers, COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2, and GR: glucocorticoid receptor.
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