Time in e-Learning Research: A Qualitative Review of the Empirical Consideration of Time in Research into e-Learning

Table 2

Characterisation of literature according to the five guiding questions.

	Meaning of time		Methodological incorporation of time
	Theoretical model	Conception of time	Phase of incorporation	Unit	Data
Amiel and Orey [30]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Questionnaire-surveys-interviews
Bannink and van Dam [31]	Process model	Evolution of a phenomenon	Dimensions	Theoretical-based unit	Log filesProducts
Y. Chen et al. [32]	Process model	Evolution of a phenomenon	Analysis	Formal time unit	Log files
D. T. Chen et al. [33]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Not specified	Setting design
Cotner et al. 12]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
		Evolution of aphenomenon	Analysis	Formal time unit	Questionnaire-surveys-interviews
Crooks et al. [34]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
		While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Ely et al. [35]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Setting design
Frydenberg [36]	Variable-based model	Moment in which the phenomenon takes place	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Institutional documents
		Evolution of a phenomenon	Analysis	Formal time unit
Hrastinski [37]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
		While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Questionnaire-surveys-interviews
Hrastinski [38]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
Hrastinski [28]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
Jeong and Frazier [39]	Variable-based model	Moment in which the phenomenon takes place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Kapur et al. [40]	Variable based model	Evolution of a phenomenon	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Log files
Kim and Keller [41]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Questionnaire-surveys-interviews
Kevin et al. [42]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Krause et al. [43]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Martin and Klein [44]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Metz [45]	Variable-based model	Moment in which the phenomenon takes place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Offir et al. [46]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
Osman and Herring [47]	Process model	Evolution of a phenomenon	Dimensions	Theoretical-based unit	Log files
Papadopoulos et al. [48]	Variable-based model	While during which a phenomenon is taking place	Dimensions	Formal time unit	Log files
Roblyer et al. [49]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
Skylar [50]	Variable-based model	Distance between two phenomena	Dimensions	Unit based on internal components of the setting	Setting design
Yoon and Johnson [51]	Process model	Evolution of a phenomenon	Dimensions	Theoretical-based unit	Log files
					Questionnaire-surveys-interviews