The Human Frontal Lobes and Frontal Network Systems: An Evolutionary, Clinical, and Treatment Perspective

Table 14

Anatomical and functional imaging categories and examples of major disease entities associated with frontal network syndromes [31–34].

(A) MRI multimodality
MRI (routine series)
T1/T2, FLAIR, GRE, and MRA to detect degree of concomitant vascular disease, atrophy pattern, and other secondary pathologies
MRI—DTI
Fiber tract pathology especially in traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis
MRI quantitative atrophy estimation
Different patterns of the major dementia syndromes (Seeley et al. [20])
MRI—perfusion
Perfusion as a reflection of hypometabolism, similar to SPECT (perfusion) and PET (metabolism) patterns of abnormality
MR spectroscopy
Biochemical analysis of NAA, choline, lactate particularly useful in brain tumor diagnosis
(B) SPECT
Hypoperfusion (in vascular or hypometabolism)
Hyperperfusion for example with ictal foci.
(C) PET brain
Hypometabolic patterns in different dementias
(D) Intrinsic state connectivity maps
Default mode
Salience network
Attentional network
Visual network
Auditory network
(E) Quantitative EEG and MEG
AD reduced connectivity of alpha and beta in frontoparietal and frontotemporal regions
Parkinson’s increased connectivity of alpha and beta locally and globally
DLBD reduced connectivity alpha range locally and globally.

Adapted and modified from [31, 32].