Pencil Graphite Electrodes: A Versatile Tool in Electroanalysis

Table 3

Electroanalytical applications of modified PGE.

Compound	Modifier	Technique	Linear range (μM)	LD (μM)	Sample	Ref.
Acetaminophen	Poly2,5-di(2-hiophenyl); -1-p-(tolyl)Pyrrole	DPV	0.025–5	0.00194	Pharmaceuticals	[108]
Acyclovir	ET β-cyclodextrin polymer	SWAdSV	0.05–0.6; 1–9	0.00759	Dosage forms, urine; pharmacokinetic studies	[109]
2-Amino-benzimidazole	MI-PPy	DPV	0.001–30000	0.0001	Biological model samples	[110]
γ-; Aminobutyric acid	MI-FUAA/MWCNTs-COOH	DPASV	0.75–205.19	0.28	Cerebrospinal fluid, human serum, aqueous	[111]
Arsenic(V)	PPy-	Pot	50–100000	28	Water	[112]
Arsenic(III)	Au-NDs/CNTs	ASV	0.5–80	0.4	Tap water	[113]
Ascorbic acid	MI-PPy	DPV	250–7000	74	Pharmaceuticals	[114]
D-, L-; Ascorbic acid	MI-PANI-FSA-C-dots	DPV	0.006–0.155; 0.006–0.165	0.000002; 0.000001	Pharmaceuticals, human plasma	[115]
D-, L-; Aspartic acid	MI-PI3AA/MWCNTs	DPASV	0.15–7.4; 0.15–8.64	0.025; 0.016	Pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[116]
D-, L-; Aspartic acid	MI-NAPD/MWCNTs-TiO2-NPs-CHPA	DPASV	9.98–516.25; 9.98–532.72	1.71; 1.76	Cerebrospinal fluid, blood serum, pharmaceuticals	[117]
Benzimidazole	MI-PPy	DPV	3–5000	0.7	Biological	[118]
Bisphenol A	Au-NPs/PVP	SWAdSV	0.03–1.1	0.001	Bottled drinking water	[119]
Bisphenol A	PANI-NRs/MWCNTs	Amp	1–400	0.01	Spiked boiling water	[120]
Cadmium	P4VP	Pot	0.1–100000	0.0251	Environmental, food, biological	[121]
Cadmium	Poly(4VP-co-Ani)	Pot	1–10000	0.794	Sea water, tomato, rice, ayurvedic medicine	[122]
Caffeine	Au-NPs/MIP-sol-gel	SWV	0.002–0.05; 0.05–1.0	0.0009	Urine, plasma, tablets, tea, energy and soda drink	[60]
Carminic acid	Pd-Au-NPs/PPr	SWV	0.01–1	0.0059	Popping candy	[123]
Ceftriaxone sodium	Copper hexacyanoferrate	CV, chrono-amp	2–72	0.54	Pharmaceuticals	[124]
Ciprofloxacin	MI-PPy and o-PD	SWV	0.001–1000	0.0000758	Tablets	[125]
Chlorogenic acid	MI-PPy	Pot	1–10000	1	Coffee	[126]
Chlorpyrifos	MI-PPy	EIS	20–300	4.5	Soil	[127]
Copper	Alga-OMNiIIP	DPASV	0.008–7.807	0.0018	Environmental, pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[128]
Copper	Cu-carmoisine/PANI	Pot	5–100000	2	Tea leaves, black currants, sour cherry juice	[129]
Copper	PPy-SSA	Pot	10–100000	5.42	Electrical copper wire	[130]
Copper	PPy-P4R	Pot	10–50000	6.7	Electrical copper wire, tap water	[131]
Copper	PSS–CnP	DPASV	<1000	0.00173	Mineral, river and sea water	[68]
L-Cysteine	Copper hexa-cyanoferrate NS	chrono-amp	1–13	0.13	Urine	[132]
Dextromethorphan	Poly(diallyl-dimethyl-ammonium chloride)/MWCNT/CQDs	DPV	2–600	0.2	Cough syrups, human urine, plasma	[133]
Diazepam	ET Bi	DPV	1.4–16.7	1.1	Tablets, urine	[134]
Diclofenac sodium	MWCNTs	DPV	0.047–12.95	0.017	Biological samples, pharmaceuticals	[135]
1,4-Dihydroxy-anthraquinone	MI-PPy/MWCNTs-COOH	DPV	0.01–100	0.00415	Serum, plasma	[136]
Dipyrone	PPy-dipyrone	Pot	100–40000	86.2	Spiked human urine, Pharmaceuticals	[62]
Dopamine	Poly(xylenol orange)	DPV	2–9	0.091	Injections	[137]
Dopamine; Uric acid	Poly(amaranth)	DPV	0–250; 0–600	0.05; 0.2	Injections	[138]
Dopamine; Uric acid	Poly(Naphthol Green B)	DPV	—	—	Injections	[139]
L-Dopa	Au	DPV	20–100	1.54	Mucuna pruriens	[140]
Epinephrine	MI-poly(NHPM-MWCNTs)	DPASV	0.09–5.90	0.02	Pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[141]
Estradiol	Au-NPs/MWCNTs	LSV	0.07–42	0.01	Blood serum	[142]
Ferritin	Imprinted Ag@CdS	DPV	1.99–23.43	0.65	Blood serum	[143]
Fluoxetine	PVC/PEDOT-C14	ITSV	0.1–1.0	0.035	Tap and river water	[144]
Citalopram				0.025
Sertraline				0.045
Folic acid	MI-pTAT/sol-gel	DPCSV	0.007–0.156	0.0021	Blood serum, pharmaceuticals	[29]
Glucose	OxPPyNFs-CoPcTS	DPV	250–20000	100	Serum samples	[34]
Glucose	Cu-NPs	Amp	1–100; 100–100000	0.44	Blood serum	[145]
Glyphosate	MI-pMAC/AuNPs	DPASV	3.98–176.23	0.35	Aqueous, soil,; human serum	[146]
Glufosinate			0.54–3.96	0.19
Heavy metals	Bi-film	SWASV	0.01–0.12	Pb: 0.0024; Cd: 0.0029; Zn: 0.012	Simultaneous in situ, aqueous solutions	[64]
Heavy metals	Nafion-graphene nanocomposite-Bi-film	SWASV	2–20; 10–100	Pb: 0.13; Cd: 0.09; Zn: 0.17	Tap water	[147]
Heavy metals	ERGO-Bi-film	SWASV	2–100	Pb: 0.12; Cd: 0.09; Zn: 0.19	Tap water	[28]
Hemoglobin	MI-pNMGA/QDs-MWCNTs	DPCSV	27.8–444.0	6.73	Blood	[148]
L-Histidine	CIP/MWCNTs	DPASV	9.990–323.572	1.980	Pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[67]
Hydrazine	Au-NPs	SWV; Amp	0.05–1000; 25–1000	0.042; 3.07	Drinking water	[32]
Hydrazine	Cu-NS/MWCNT	SWV; Amp	0.1–800; 50–800	0.07; 4.3	River, waste, well waters	[149]
Hydrochlorothiazide	MI-PPy/MWCNTs-COOH	DPV	0.0009–10; 10–10000	0.0001	Pharmaceuticals, serum	[150]
Hydrogen peroxide	Ag/FeOOH nanocomposites	Amp	30–15000	22.8	Disinfectant	[151]
Hydrogen peroxide	Pd-NPs	Amp	10–140	0.045	—	[24]
Hydrogen peroxide	Pt-NPs	Amp	10–110	3.6	—	[152]
Insulin	MI-pAEP-MWCNTs	DPASV	0.000058–0.005647	0.0000186	Pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[65]
Iodide	PPy-iodide	Pot	10–100000	9.3	Pharmaceuticals	[153]
K^+, Na^+	PB	CV	1000–500000	600–12000; 600–21000	Synthetic	[63]
Lorazepam	MI-PPy/sol-gel/AuNPs	SWV	0.0002–0.002; 0.002–0.020	0.00009	Pharmaceuticals, plasma, urine	[154]
Lomustine	MF	SWCASV	0.192–13.6	0.0813	Human blood, urine	[155]
Magnesium	PPy-Titan yellow	Pot	10–50000	6.28	Tap and mineral water	[156]
Mancozeb	SPIONs/MISP	—	5.96–257.0	0.96	Soil, vegetable	[157]
Methadone	MWCNTs	DPV	0.1–15	0.087	Human serum, urine	[158]
D-, L- Methionine	MI-polyBz/MWCNTs-COOH	DPV	11.7–188.7; 11.7–206.3	3; 3	Pharmaceuticals, blood serum	[159]
Metoprolol	MI-PPy/MWCNTs-COOH	DPV	0.06–490	0.00288	Pharmaceuticals, serum	[160]
Morphine	Au-NPs/MIP/MWCNT	SWV	0.008–5	0.0029	Human urine, serum	[161]
Nitrate	PPy-	Pot	100–100000	50	Water	[162]
Nitrite	Polypyronin Y	Amp	1–100	0.5	Food	[163]
Nitrite	PVF+/MWCNTs	DPV	1–400	0.1	Mineral water	[164]
4-Nitrophenol	MWCNTs	FI-Amp	5–300	1.5	Water	[35]
4-Nitrophenol	Cu	Amp	50–850	1.91		[165]
2-Nitrophenol; 4-Nitrophenol	Bi	DPV	2–200; 4–400	5.42; 7.48		[166]
Pantoprazole	PPy-PTZ	Pot	10–11000	6.9	Pharmaceuticals	[167]
Paracetamol	MI-PPy	DPV	5–500; 1250–4500	0.79	Pharmaceuticals	[168]
Phenothiazine	MI-PPy	DPV	1–300; 500–10000	0.3	Model and real biological	[169]
D-, L- Pyroglutamic acid	MI-poly5-MTCA–Cu(II)	DPASV	2.8–170.0	0.77	Cerebrospinal fluid, blood plasma, urine	[66]
Quercetin	p-AMT	DPV	0.1–6	2.2	—	[170]
Ranitidine	Au-NP/MIP-sol–gel/MWCNTs-COOH	SWV	0.05–2.0	0.02	Human urine	[61]
Serotonin	p(P3CA)	AdDPSV	0.01–1.0	0.0025	Blood serum, urine	[171]
Sildenafil citrate	PPy-citrate	Pot	34–1700	30	Pharmaceuticals	[172]
Sulfanilamide	MI-PPy	DPV	0.05–1.1; 1.1–48	0.02	Spiked human serum, ground water	[173]
Sulfamethoxazole	MI-OxPPy	DPV	25–750	0.359	Pharmaceuticals	[59]
Thiocarbohydrazide	MI-PPy	DPV	500–6000	50	Biological	[174]
6-Thioguanine	MI-polyneutral red/ERGO	DPASV	0.124–78.0	0.02	Pharmaceuticals, urine, serum	[175]
Triamterene	MI-PPy/MWCNTs-COOH	DPV	0.08–265	0.00335	Serum, pharmaceuticals	[176]
L-Tyrosine	graphene	SWV	0.8–60	0.07	Urine	[177]
Uranium(VI)	PPy-ZnUO2(CH3COO)4	Pot	1–10000	0.63	Mineral and tap water	[178]
Uric acid	Ox-PEDOT-nf	DPV	0.01–20.0	0.0013	Blood serum, urine	[179]
Valacyclovir	CuMPs	AdSWV	0.002–0.01	0.000178	Pharmaceuticals	[180]
Vitamin B12	PNT	SWV	0.2–9.5	0.093	Tablets	[181]
Vitamin B12	SWCNTs-chitosan	SWV	0.005–0.1	0.00089	Pharmaceuticals	[182]
Zinc	Tartrazine-PPy	Pot	10–100000	8	Barley flakes, rice dry milk	[183]

ng·mL⁻¹; µg·mL⁻¹; ET: electrochemically treated; MI: molecularly imprinted; PPy: polypyrrole; FUAA: 5-fluorouracil-N-acetyl acrylamide; NDs: nanodendrites; CNT: carbon nanotubes; ASV: anodic stripping voltammetry; FSA: ferrocene sulfonic acid; PI3AA: poly(indole-3-acetic acid); NAPD: N-acryloyl-pyrrolidine-2,5-dione; NPs: nanoparticles; CHPA: 2-chloro-N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-acetamide; PVP: polyvinylpyrrolidone; SWAdSV: square wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry; PANI: polyaniline; NRs: nanorodes; MWCNTs: multiwall carbon nanotubes; P4VP: poly(4-vinyl pyridine); poly(4VP-co-Ani): poly(4-vinylpyridine-co-aniline); MIP: molecularly imprinted polymer; PPr: polyproline; chronoamp: chronoamperometry; o-PD: o-phenylenediamine; EIS: electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; OMNiIIP: one monomer ion imprinted polymer; SSA: sulfosalicylic acid; P4R: Ponceau 4R azo dye; PSS-CnP: polystyrene sulfonate-carbon nanopowders; NS: nanostructure; CQDs: carbon quantum dots; NHPM: N-hydroxyphenyl maleimide; LSV: linear sweep voltammetry; Ag@CdSNPs: AgCdS core shell nanoparticles; PVC: poly(vinyl chloride); PEDOT-C14: 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene; ITSV: ion transfer stripping voltammetry; pTAT: poly(triaminotriazine); DPCSV: differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry; OxPPy: overoxidized polypyrrole; NFs-nanofibers; CoPcTS: cobalt(II) phthalocyanine tetrasulfonate; pMAC: poly(N-methacryloyl-L-cysteine); ERGO: electrochemically reduced graphene oxide; pNMGA: poly(N-methacryloyl glutamic acid); QD: quantum dots; CIP: complex imprinted polymer; pAEP: poly[(p-acryloylaminophenyl)-(4-aminophenyl)-diethyl ammonium}-ethylphosphate]; PB: Prussian Blue; MF: mercury film; SPIONs: superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles; MISP: molecularly imprinted star polymer; Bz: benzidine; PVF: poly(vinylferrocene); PTZ: pantoprazole; MTCA: methyl-2-thiophene carboxylic acid; p-AMT: polymerized 5-amino-2-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole; p(P3CA): poly(pyrrole-3-carboxylic acid); Ox-PEDOT-nf: overoxidized poly (3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene) nanofibers; CuMPs: copper micropoarticles; PNTs: peptide nanotubes; copper microparticles; SWCNTs: single-wall carbon nanotubes. All the other abbreviations are like those in the previous tables.