Identity in American Indian communities has continually been a subject of contentious debate among legal scholars, federal policy-makers, anthropologists, historians, and even within Native American society itself. As American Indians have a unique relationship with the United States, their identity has continually been redefined and reconstructed over the last century and a half. This has placed a substantial burden on definitions for legal purposes and tribal affiliation and on American Indians trying to self-identify within multiple cultural contexts. Is there an appropriate means to recognize and define just who is an American Indian? One approach has been to define identity through the use of blood quantum, a metaphorical construction for tracing individual and group ancestry. This paper will review the utility of blood quantum by examining the cultural, social, biological, and legal implications inherent in using such group membership and, further, how American Indian identity is being affected.

Ryan W. Schmidt

American Indian Identity and Blood Quantum in the 21st Century: A Critical Review

The earliest known representations of the human female form are the European Paleolithic “Venus figurines,” ranging in age from 23,000 to 25,000 years. We asked participants to rate images of Paleolithic figurines for their attractiveness, age grouping and reproductive status. Attractiveness was positively correlated with measures of the waist-to hip ratio (WHR) of figurines, consistent with the “sexually attractive symbolism” hypothesis. However, most figurines had high WHRs (&gt;1.0) and received low attractiveness scores. Participants rated most figurines as representing middle-aged or young adult women, rather than being adolescent or older (postmenopausal). While some were considered to represent pregnant women, consistent with the “fertility symbol” hypothesis, most were judged as being non-pregnant. Some figurines depict obese, large-breasted women, who are in their mature reproductive years and usually regarded as being of lower attractiveness. At the time these figurines were made, Europe was in the grip of a severe ice age. Obesity and survival into middle age after multiple pregnancies may have been rare in the European Upper Paleolithic. We suggest that depictions of corpulent, middle-aged females were not “Venuses” in any conventional sense. They may, instead, have symbolized the hope for survival and longevity, within well-nourished and reproductively successful communities.

Alan F. Dixson

Barnaby J. Dixson

Venus Figurines of the European Paleolithic: Symbols of Fertility or Attractiveness?

<i>Purpose</i>. To find the prevalence of overweight/obesity and hypertension, and to study the association between BMI, blood pressure, and age. <i>Methods</i>. Cross-sectional study was carried out among 257 Tangkhul Naga males of Northeast India, age ranging from 20–70 years. The subjects were divided into five different age groups to study age trend. <i>Results</i>. Mean systolic, and diastolic BP was higher among subjects with elevated BMI and among older subjects. Minimum BP was found among underweight and maximum among obese. BP was found lowest among the youngest age group and higher among the elderly subjects. BMI was also found to be associated with age independently. Although the magnitude of correlation differed, there was significant positive correlation among BMI, age, systolic and diastolic BP. Odd ratios showed overweight/obese subjects to be more likely to have hypertension than those with normal BMI. Changing socioeconomic environment intensifies the prevalence of overweight/obesity and hypertension among the Tangkhul Nagas.

N. K. Mungreiphy

Satwanti Kapoor

Rashmi Sinha

Association between BMI, Blood Pressure, and Age: Study among Tangkhul Naga Tribal Males of Northeast India

This paper provides a followup on a previous report in this journal on the health impact of providing access to water treatment and flush toilets to region of Honduras. Significant reductions were found in the one-year incidence of positive test results for the three protozoan species tested. This finding combined with the previously reported ethnographic and medical chart review data provides compelling evidence that such interventions significantly reduce the disease load from waterborne pathogens within this population. Furthermore, the finding that initial results are significantly different, even in the initial round of testing, if individuals who are not followed up are eliminated from the analysis has profound methodological implications which warrant further investigation and demonstrates the need for precise definitions of community in future studies.

Jeffery Deal

Health Impact of Community-Based Water Treatment Systems in Honduras

A community-based cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of undernutrition using body mass index (BMI) among 2&#x2013;6-year Santal preschool children of Purulia District, West Bengal, India. A total of 251 (116 boys and 135 girls) children from 12 villages were measured. Commonly used indicators, that is, weight, height, and BMI, were used to evaluate the nutritional status. More boys (59.5&#x25;) than girls (53.3&#x25;), based on BMI, were undernourished. Significant age differences in weight 
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</svg>), and BMI (<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:137.52499px;" id="M3" height="18.1875" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 137.52499 18.1875" width="137.52499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D439"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,15.344,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,30.048,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,38.208,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x2E"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,42.083,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x35"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,50.243,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g>

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			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,79.988,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,89.524,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D451"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,98.958,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D453"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,114.597,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,129.284,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g>

		
	
</svg>) among boys were observed. Similarly, significant differences between ages in mean weight (<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:145.6875px;" id="M4" height="18.1875" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 145.6875 18.1875" width="145.6875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,88.15,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,97.686,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D451"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,107.121,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D453"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,122.759,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,137.446,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g>

		
	
</svg>), height (<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:145.6875px;" id="M5" height="18.1875" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 145.6875 18.1875" width="145.6875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
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			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,88.15,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,97.686,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D451"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,107.121,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D453"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,122.759,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,137.446,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g>

		
	
</svg>), and BMI (<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:137.52499px;" id="M6" height="18.1875" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 137.52499 18.1875" width="137.52499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D439"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,15.344,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,30.048,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,38.208,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x2E"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,42.083,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x36"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,50.243,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g>

			<g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,58.413,5.525)"><use xlink:href="#x2217"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,65.397,5.525)"><use xlink:href="#x2217"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,72.382,5.525)"><use xlink:href="#x2217"/></g>

			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,79.988,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,89.524,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D451"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,98.958,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x1D453"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,114.597,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,129.284,13.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g>

		
	
</svg>) were observed among the girls. The present study revealed that the nutritional status of the preschool children of Santal tribal community of 
these villages was poor with very high rate of thinness in boys and girls (59.5&#x25; and 53.3&#x25;, resp.).

Subal Das

Kaushik Bose

Prevalence of Thinness among Santal Preschool Children Using New Body Mass Index Cut-Off Points

The study aims to see the relationship between menstrual cycle and adiposity measures in Indian populations as menstrual cycle length has an important bearing on fertility and health of women. 415 premenopausal women in the ages 22–50 years residing in Delhi, India constituted the data. The adiposity was assessed by BMI as well as by using Bio-electric impedance method. The information regarding their physical activity pattern and menstrual cycle was recorded, and age at menarche was obtained through recall method. None of the underweight category women had menstrual cycle of less than 25 days. A decrease in body mass index and an increase in the age at menarche were found with the increase in the duration of menstrual cycle. The majority of women with 25–35 days duration of menstrual cycle in the present study were distributed in all the categories of BMI. Age was found to have no effect on longer cycle. The majority of women were in moderately physically active group and experienced menstrual cycle duration of 25–35 days. It is of utmost importance to identify the effects  of moderate levels of physical activity, body mass index, and age at menarche on the menstrual cycle to enable the normal reproductive health of women.

Anup Kumar Kapoor

Adiposity Measures and Menstrual Cycle: Do We Envisage a Relation?

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Journal of Anthropology