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| Nanoparticle (NP) composition | Unique characteristics and advantages | Adverse effects/toxicity of nanoparticle components | References |
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| Solid lipid | Acidic pH of MDR tumour cells favours drug release from NP. | No haemolytic activity in human erythrocytes. | [69] |
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| Polymer-based | Versatile acid-responsive drug release kinetics. | Minimal cytotoxicity observed on ovarian cancer cell lines. | [70] |
|
| Hydrogels | Easy synthesis, peptide-attachment facility for targeted delivery. | Nontoxic. | [71] |
|
| Magnetic (iron oxide) | Allows for physical (magnetic) enhancement of the passive mechanisms implemented for the extravastation and accumulation within the tumour microenvironment. | L-glutamic acid coated iron oxide nanoparticles demonstrated in vitro biocompatibility. | [72–74] |
|
| Micelle-based | Capable of solubilizing a wide range of water-insoluble drugs. | Relatively safe, though elevated doses can induce dose-dependent adverse effects such as hyperlipidaemia, hepatosplenomegaly, and gastrointentinal disorders. | [75–77] |
|
| Gold | Lack of complexity in their synthesis, characterization, and surface functionality. Gold nanoparticles also have shape/size-dependent optoelectronic characteristics. | Can induce cellular DNA damage. | [78–80] |
|
| Quantum dots | Capacity to be tracked in real time within specific areas of the target cells, due to their intrinsic fluorescence properties. | Potential long-term toxicity due to release of toxic components (e.g., Cadmium) and generation of reactive oxygen species. | [81, 82] |
|
| Chitosan | Naturally occurring compound, derived from crustacean shells. | High biocompatibility properties. | [83, 84] |
|
| Mesoporous silica | Physical characteristics (e.g., size, shape) can be easily modified to induce bespoke pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics profiles. | Possible membrane peroxidation, glutathione depletion, mitochondrial dysfunction, and/or DNA damage. | [85, 86] |
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