Cellular Dysfunction in Diabetes as Maladaptive Response to Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress

Table 2

Markers of oxidative damage in proteins.

Amino acid	Product
(i) Arginine	Glutamic-semialdehyde
(ii) Cysteine	Cysteine disulfides, Sulfenic acid
(iii) Histidine	Aspartate; Asparagine; 2-Oxoimidazoline; 2-Oxohistidine
(iv) Leucine	3-,4-,5-Monohydroxyleucine
(v) Leucine, valine, isoleucine, proline, and others	Protein carbonyls
(vi) Lysine	2-Amino-adipic-semialdehyde
(vii) Methionine	Methionine sulfoxide
(viii) Phenylalanine	ortho- and meta-tyrosine
(ix) Proline	Glutamate
	Glutamic-semialdehyde
	2-Pyrrolidone
	4-,5-Hydroxyproline
	Pyroglutamic acid
(x) Threonine	2-Amino-3-ketobutyric acid
(xi) Tryptophan	2-, 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-OH tryptophan; N-formylkynurenine; Kynurenine
(xii) Tyrosine	Di-tyrosine (Tyr-Tyr cross-links); Dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA); 3-Nitrotirosine; 3-Chlorotyrosine