GDF-15 as a Target and Biomarker for Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Translational Prospective

Table 1

List of human studies dealing with GDF-15 levels in obesity and diabetes.

Disease/population/follow-up period	Sample size	Major findings	Reference
T1DM patients with diabetic nephropathy (8.1 years)	451	GDF-15 can be used to detect faster deterioration of kidney function	[21]
Obese nondiabetic (XENDOS) trial; (4 years follow Up period)	496	GDF-15 is altered among patients having abdominal obesity and insulin resistance and independently associated with future insulin resistance and abnormal glucose control	[22]
Morbidly obese patients	118	GDF-15 changes following bariatric surgery suggest an indirect relationship between GDF-15 and insulin resistance	[23]
Type 2 diabetes (whitehall II study); (11.5 ± 3.0 years follow up period)	552	Baseline GDF-15 concentrations were increased in individuals before type 2 diabetes manifestation	[24]
Patients with obesity and/or obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus	54	Elevated GDF-15 levels in patients with obesity are further increased by the presence of T2DM	[25]
Preeclampsia and diabetic pregnancies	267	GDF-15 is dysregulated, both in preeclampsia and in diabetic pregnancies	[26]
Patients with T2DM included in screened for the presence of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DC)	T2DM ( = 213)	GDF-15 represents a useful and novel tool to screen diabetic cardiomyopathy (DC) in patients with type 2 DM	[27]
Diabetic nephropathy	T2DM ( = 30), microalbuminuria ( = 20), macroalbuminuria ( = 30) patients	Suggesting its value in early diagnosis, evaluation, and prediction of the outcomes of type 2 diabetic nephropathy	[28]