Roles of Pyruvate, NADH, and Mitochondrial Complex I in Redox Balance and Imbalance in β Cell Function and Dysfunction

Figure 4

The pyruvate recycling pathways in β cell mitochondria. The three pathways shown are pyruvate-malate pathway, the pyruvate-citrate pathway, and the pyruvate-isocitrate pathway. Each pathway converts reducing equivalents from NADH to NADPH that plays key roles in the second phase of insulin secretion.