Journal of Environmental and Public Health

Review Article

Cobenefits of Replacing Car Trips with Alternative Transportation: A Review of Evidence and Methodological Issues

Table 1

Summary of cobenefits studies in transport area.


Reference	Study design	Methodological of modeling									Results
Author, year, study sites	Scenarios	Environment impact assessment			Health impact assessment			Economic impact assessment			Main finding
Author, year, study sites	Scenarios	Method/tools	Indicators	Key parameters resource	Method/tools	Indicators	Key parameters resource	Method/tools	Indicators	Key parameters resource	Main finding

Woodcock et al. (2009) [11] London, UK, and Delhi, India	BAU 2030 Lower-carbon-emission motor vehicles (more efficient engines and fuels switching) Increased active travel (increasing walking and cycling) Towards sustainable transport (lower-carbon-emission motor vehicles and increased active transport scenarios)	London: ERG Emissions Toolkit ADMS 4 OSPM v5.0.64 Delhi: SIM-air Version 1.3	Annual mean PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations	London: LAEI 2006 Delhi: inventory of aerosol and sulphur dioxide emissions from India	CRA	Annual preventable DALYs of cardio-respiratory lung cancer,acute respiratory infections (air pollution reduction), diabetes, dementia, hypertensive heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, depression (increased physical activity)	Global Burden of Disease Database Meta-analyses from an exhaustive literature review London: London-area travel demand models London Area Travel Survey Delhi: World Health Survey 2000				London: 60% reduction in transport CO₂ emissions from the 1990 levels; 7439 DALYs per million population would be avoided (towards sustainable transport scenarios) Delhi: 199% increase in CO₂ emissions from 1990; 12 995 DALYs per million population would be avoided (towards sustainable transport scenarios)

Lindsay et al. (2011) [12] Auckland, New Zealand	Moving short urban trips (<7 km) from cars to bicycles by 1%, 5%, 10%, and 30%	VEPM version 2.3	vehicle emissions per km for CO, CO₂, , VOC, and PM₁₀	HAPiNZ study	HEAT	Annual reduction in deaths Energy expenditure	New Zealand Household Travel Survey HAPiNZ study	HEAT	Value of Statistical Life Fuel savings ($NZ)	HAPiNZ study Ministry of Transport’s Value of Statistical Life	Shifting 5% of vehicle kilometers to cycling would save 22 million liters of fuel; reduce transport- related GHGs by 0.4%; avoide 122 deaths annually due to increased physical activity and local air pollution reduction; save $200 million per year from health effect

Rojas-Rueda et al. (2012) [13] Greater Barcelona metropolitan area	BAU Replacing car trips (20%, 40%) by bicycle Replacing car trips (20%, 40%) by public transport (bus, tram, train, and metro) Replacing car trips (20%, 40%) by bicycle and public transport	Barcelona Air-Dispersion Model	PM_2.5 concentration CO₂ emission	Barcelona City council report 2009 Local transportation departments	RR functions in PM2.5 HEAT	All-cause mortality	Daily Mobility Survey of Catalonia Daily Mobility Survey of Catalonia Statistical Institute of Catalonia Published literature				A shifting of 40% car trips to cycling and public transport would avoid 98.5 deaths in total; reduce 203, 251 /CO₂ emissions per year

Grabow et al. (2012) [14] Midwestern United States	Replacing short car trips (≤8 km round trip) in urban areas by bicycle	Community Multiscale Air Quality Model version 4.6 BenMAP version 4.0.35	Mean annual PM_2.5 and O₃ concentration	2001 National Emissions Inventory US EPA	BenMAP HEAT	Mortalities of asthma, chronic bronchitis, respiratory problems, cardiovascular problems, work-loss days, acute respiratory symptoms, ER visits, mortality, HA (respiratory school-loss days worker productivity), (air pollution reduction), All-cause mortality (increased physical activity)	1996 National Health Interview Survey Published literature US EPA	BenMAP HEAT	Cost savings	US EPA	Eliminating short car trips and completing 50% of them by bicycle would decline mean annual PM_2.5 by 0.1 μg/m³;decline mortality by 1,295 deaths/year in 31.3 million people because of improved air quality and increased exercise; combine benefits of improved air quality and physical fitness would exceed $8 billion/year

Maizlish et al. (2013) [15] San Francisco Bay Area	BAU 2035 Low-carbon driving (increased hybrid vehicles and light-duty diesel, biofuel, and electric vehicles) Active transport (50% of BAU miles travelled in car trips less than 1.5 miles are walked and 50% of BAU miles travelled in car trips 1.5 to 5 miles are by bicycle)	EMFAC2007 BAAQMD air shed model	CO₂ emissions Annual PM2.5 concentration	California Air Resources Board Bay Area Air Quality Management District	CRA	Lung cancer, respiratory disease, (air pollution reduction) Annual preventable DALYs of cardiovascular diseases, colon cancer, breast cancer, diabetes, dementia (increased physical activity)	Global Burden of Disease Database 2000 Bay Area Travel Survey Meta-analyses				Increasing active transport scenario would reduce 5952 DALYs per million people in total; increase the traffic injury burden by 39% (5907 DALYs); decrease GHGE by 14% Low-carbon driving scenario would reduce 31 DALYs per million people in total; reduce GHGE by 33.5%

BAU: business as usual.
ERG: Environmental Research Group.
ADMS: Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System.
OSPM: operational Street Pollution Model.
SIM-air: Simple Interactive Models for better air quality.
LAEI: The London Atmospheric Emissions Inventory.
DALY: The disability-adjusted life year.
VEPM: Vehicle Emissions Prediction Model.
HAPiNZ: Application of Health and Pollution in New Zealand.
HEAT: Health Economic Assessment Tool.
BenMAP: Environmental Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program.
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency.
EMFAC: Emission Factors model.
BAAQMD: Bay Area Air Quality Management District.