Household Willingness-to-Pay for Improved Solid Waste Management Services in Four Major Metropolitan Cities in Ghana

Table 4

Logistic regression analysis of socioeconomic predictors of willingness-to-pay for solid waste management services.

Variables	Crude OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)
Age in years	1.01 (1.00, 1.02)^∗	—
Male gender
Male	0.96 (0.79, 1.17)	—
Female	1.00	—
Educational level
No formal education	1.00	1.00
Basic education	1.53 (0.96, 2.46)	1.76 (1.01, 3.06)^∗
Senior high school	1.94 (1.26., 2.30)^∗^∗	2.52 (1.48, 4.30)^∗^∗
Postsecondary	1.51 (0.92, 2.49)	1.97 (1.08, 3.60)^∗
Tertiary	2.19 (1.47, 3.26)^∗^∗^∗	3.30 (1.91, 5.69)^∗^∗^∗
Marital status
Married	1.00	1.00
Cohabiting	1.20 (0.97, 1.47)	1.47 (1.13, 1.93)^∗^∗
Single	1.01 (0.56, 1.84)	3.61 (1.53, 8.52)^∗^∗
Widowed/divorced	0.77 (0.42, 1.43)	0.32 (0.12, 0.81)^∗
Employed
Yes	1.63 (1.09, 2.45)^∗	—
No	1.00	—
Area of occupation
Government (civil servants)	1.00	1.00
Private	0.81 (0.60, 1.08)	0.56 (0.40, 0.81)^∗^∗
Self-employment (informal sector)	0.80 (0.61, 1.05)	0.75 (0.52, 1.08)
Description of income level
Less than 500 GHC	1.00	1.00
500–1000 GHC	1.30 (0.95, 1.77)	1.15 (0.81, 1.64)
1100–2000	1.04 (0.76, 1.41)	0.72 (0.51, 1.04)
2100–3000	0.92 (0.59, 1.45)	0.70 (0.42, 1.15)
3100–5000	1.62 (1.02, 2.55)^∗	1.07 (0.63, 1.83)
Rate of socioeconomic status
Very rich	1.00	1.00
Rich	1.71 (1.00, 1.29)^∗	1.57 (0.84, 2.95)
Moderately rich	0.63 (0.41, 0.94)^∗	0.64 (0.38, 1.08)
Poor	0.31 (0.18, 0.53)^∗∗∗	0.28 (0.14, 0.51)^∗∗∗
Residence
Urban	1.26 (1.00, 1.59)^∗	—
Periurban	1.00	—
Description of residency
Estate	1.00	1.00
New site	0.85 (0.63, 1.15)	0.94 (0.66, 1.34)
Inner city/old town	0.90 (0.68, 1.19)	1.22 (0.85, 1.74)
Slums/zongos/others	0.55 (0.37, 0.92)^∗∗	0.74 (0.46, 1.20)
Region
Western	1.00	1.00
Northern	0.82 (0.59, 1.13)	1.05 (0.69, 1.58)
Greater accra	0.99 (0.74, 1.33)	1.04 (0.72, 1.50)
Ashanti	1.32 (0.99, 1.76)	1.52 (1.04,2.22)^∗

SWM, solid waste management. ^∗p < 0.05; ^∗∗p < 0.01; ^∗∗∗p < 0.001.