|
| Year | Author | Type | Segment | IVD details | Ligament details | Muscle details | Simulated impact cases |
|
| 1993 | Kleinberger [50] | FE | C0-T1 | Isolinear IVD | Isolinear solid element | — | Frontal-axial |
| 1994 | Dauvilliers et al. [51] | FE | C0-T1 | Linear composite | Linear spring/dampers | Passive | Frontal-lateral |
| 1998 | Yang et al. [52] | FE | C0-T1 | Isolinear AF, viscoelastic NP | Linear cables and membranes | Passive | Axial-lateral |
| 1999 | Deng et al. [53] | FE | C0-T1 | Isolinear AF, viscoelastic NP | Linear viscoelastic membranes | 15 pairs, active (Hill) | Frontal |
| 2000 | Halldin and Brolin [54] | FE | C0-T1 | Linear comp AF (shell) | Bilinear cables | 14 pairs, active (Hill) | Frontal-lateral-axial |
| 2003 | Yang and Yao [55] | FE | C1–C7 | Isolinear AF, viscoelastic NP | Spring elements | Hughes-Liu element, active | Frontal |
| 2004 | Meyer et al. [56] | FE | C0-T1 | Isolinear IVD (AF and NP) | Nonlinear cables | Solid elements, passive | Frontal-lateral-rear |
| 2005 | Fice et al. [57] | FE | C0-T1 | Isolinear AF, viscoelastic NP | Nonlinear tension-only membrane | — | Lateral |
| 2006 | Zhang et al. [1] | FE | C0–C7 | Isolinear AF, Isolinear NP | Nonlinear cables | — | Rear |
| 2008 | Toyota Motor Corporation [58] | FE | Human body | — | Nonlinear tension-only membrane | Passive | Rear |
| 2011 | Panzer et al. [59] | FE | C0–C7 | Solid hexahedral elements | Tension-only beam elements | 25 pairs, passive, active (Hill) | Frontal |
| 2011 | Fice et al. [57] | FE | C0–C7 | Solid elements | Nonlinear tension-only spring elements | 25 pairs, passive, active (Hill) | Rear |
| 2014 | Cronin et al. [60] | FE | C0–C7 | Isolinear AF, Isolinear NP | Nonlinear axial elements | Passive-active (Hill) | Rear |
| 2016 | Östh et al. [61] | FE | C0–C7 | Hexahedral elements and orthotropic quadrilateral | Orthotropic membrane elements | Hill muscle | Rear |
| 2017 | Hassan et al. [62] | FE | Human body | Shell and brick elements | 1D elements | 1-D and brick elements | Rear |
| 2018 | Jiayi et al. [63] | FE | C0–C7 | Isotropic linear elastic | Isotropic linear elastic (incompressible) | Passive (the Ogden model of superelastic materials) | Arrested landing |
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