Does the Gut Microbiota Influence Immunity and Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis Pathophysiology?
Table 1
The composition of human intestinal flora.
The name of the bacteria
The amount of bacteria
Age of occurrence
The origin of the bacteria
Influence
Role
Staphylococcus
<105 CFU ml−1
Acute prematurity
Caesarean section
Pathogenic
Unfolding mucin whose parts are used as food for the body. One of the first pathogens inhabiting the intestinal flora [Palmer et al., 2007]
Actinobacteria
104 CFU ml−1
From the first years of life
With food
Beneficial
Coordination of the immune system Stimulation of gastrointestinal motility Production of bioactive compounds, including antibacterial, antifungal, and anthelmintic drugs as well as antitumor and antiviral drugs, for example, streptomycin and kanamycin [Kumar et al., 2010]
Bacteroides
1010 to 1011 per 1 g of the content
From the age of 3
With a decreasing amount of oxygen in the intestine There are obligatory anaerobes
Endogenous bacteria due to infection
Production of vitamins B7, B2, and C Inhibition of the growth of pathogens and harmful bacteria [Round et al., 2011] They stimulate the formation of iTreg [Round et al., 2011]
Clostridium
<105 CFU ml−1
The largest number in the adulthood
With a decreasing amount of oxygen in the intestine There are obligatory anaerobes
Pathogenic
They stimulate the formation of Treg relevant in reducing the pathology dependent on Th2 cells in the mucous membranes of the respiratory system Atarashi et al., 2011 Josefowicz et al., 2012
Ruminococcus
105–106 CFU ml−1
From the age of 3
Natural childbirth
Beneficial
Unfolding mucin, which helps the intestine absorb the fragments used as food for the body [Præsteng et al., 2013]
Bifidobacteria
1010 to 1011 CFU ml−1
From the first years of life if the child is breastfed
Mother’s milk
Beneficial
They form a natural protective barrier against pathogens by producing bacteriocin and organic acids. Stimulation of gastrointestinal motility [Bottacini et al., 2014]
Veillonella
105 CFU ml−1
From the first years of life
With food
Pathogenic
Coordination of the immune system Stimulation of gastrointestinal motility This increases the concentrations of IL-8, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α [van den Bogert et al., 2014]
Prevotella
106-107 CFU ml−1
From birth
Natural childbirth
Pathogenic
Production of vitamin B1 and folic acid Inhibiting the growth of pathogens and harmful bacteria [Koskey et al., 2014]
Streptococcus
<105 CFU ml−1
From birth
The first organisms that colonize the intestine
Pathogenic
Stimulation of the immune system by the ability of adhesion to the bowel mucosa [Wang et al., 2014]
Lactobacillus
108 to 1010 per 1 g of the content
From the first years of life if the child is breastfed
Natural childbirth
Beneficial
Create natural barriers to the growth of pathogenic bacteria by production of bacteriocin and organic acids [Bottacini et al., 2014]
Escherichia coli
>106 CFU ml−1
The first few hours of life
With a decreasing amount of oxygen in the intestine There are obligatory anaerobes
Pathogenic
Production of vitamins B and K It produces fecal enzymes and synthesized carcinogens [Grudniak et al., 2015]
Propionibacterium
106 CFU ml−1
From birth
Caesarean section
Pathogenic in immunocompromised individuals
Coordination of the immune system Stimulation of gastrointestinal motility Induced expression of proteins iNOS and COX-2 by ROS-dependent NF-kB and AP-1 activation of macrophages [Jahns et al., 2015]
