Inflammation-Related Mechanisms in Chronic Kidney Disease Prediction, Progression, and Outcome

Table 1

Effects of administrating pro-, pre-, or synbiotics in CKD.

Novel therapeutic targets	Effects on CKD	Reference
Probiotics—Lactobacillus acidophilus	Nitrosodimethylamine levels decreased, and serum dimethylamine levels dropped (on humans).	[77]
Probiotics—Bacillus pasteurii or Lactobacillus sporogenes	Enhanced survival in nephrectomized rats while slowing the progress of renal injury (rat model).	[78]
Probiotics—Sprosarcina pasteurii	Reduced blood urea-nitrogen levels and significantly prolonged the lifespan of uremic animals (rat model).	[79]
Probiotics—oral sorbent charcoal AST-120	Delay in the progression of CKD but also in cardiovascular diseases (rat model).	[80]
Probiotics—Bifidobacterium longum	Reduced serum levels of indoxyl sulfate by correcting the intestinal microflora (on humans).	[81]
Probiotics—Bifidobacterium longum	Decreased serum levels of homocysteine, indoxyl sulfate, and triglyceride (on humans).	[82]
Prebiotics—oligofructose-enriched inulin	Significantly reduced p-cresyl sulfate generation rates (on humans).	[83]
Prebiotics—resistant starch	Reduced plasma levels of indoxyl sulfate and p-cresol sulfate (on humans).	[84]
Synbiotics	Decreased serum p-cresol sulfate and the stool microbiome modified (on humans).	[75]
Synbiotics	Normalization of bowel habits and a decrease of serum p-cresol levels (on humans).	[85]