Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies

Table 2

Selected mechanisms for evasion of host defense by persistent intracellular pathogens.

Mechanism	Pathogen(s)	Pathogen type	Remarks	Reference(s)
Immunomodulation	Salmonella spp.	B	Lipid A modification	[186]
	Leptospira interrogans	B	Peptidoglycan modification	[187, 188]
	Poxvirus	V	Host cytokine decoy receptors	[189]
	Herpesvirus	V	Host cytokine and chemokine decoy receptors	[190]
	Mycobacterium tuberculosis	B	ESX secretion system	[191]
	Salmonella typhimurium	B	Type III secretion system	[192]
	Brucella abortus	B	Type IV secretion system	[193]
	Staphylococcus aureus	B	Ess secretion system	[194]
	Bacillus subtilis	B	Yuk/Yue secretion system	[195]
Antigenic variation	Influenza virus	V	Antigenic drift/shift	[196]
	Neisseria spp.	B	DNA rearrangement	[197, 198]
	Plasmodium spp.	P	Programmed gene rearrangement	[199]
	S. Typhimurium	B	DNA rearrangement	[200]
	Trypanosoma brucei	P	Programmed gene rearrangement	[201]
	Hepatitis C virus	V	DNA rearrangement	[202]
	Human immunodeficiency virus	V	DNA rearrangement	[203]
Hiding in safe target cells/tissues	Epstein-Barr virus	V	B cells	[204]
	Herpes simplex virus	V	Sensory neurons	[27, 205]
	Leishmania spp.	P	Fibroblasts	[206]
	Mycobacterium leprae	B	Peripheral nerves (Schwann cells)	[207]
	Salmonella enterica Typhi	B	Reticuloendothelial system	[208]
	Toxoplasma spp.	P	Cerebellar neurons	[209]
	Varicella zoster virus	V	Dorsal root ganglia	[210]

B: bacteria; P: protozoa; V: virus.