What Is the Role of Nanotechnology in Diagnosis and Treatment of Metastatic Breast Cancer? Promising Scenarios for the Near Future

Table 1

Nano-DDS in MBC.

	Nanoparticle type	Cargo	Target	Size	Toxicity evaluation	Nanocompound
Clinical practice	Liposomes (pegylated)	Doxorubicin	—	100 nm	Skin toxicity, mucositis, stomatitis, hand-foot syndrome, and neutropenia	Doxil, Caelyx [14–17]
	Liposomes (nonpegylated)		—	180 nm	Myelosuppression (neutropenia, thrombocytopenia), congestive heart failure	Myocet [18–20]
	Albumin-bound nanoparticles (Nab)	Paclitaxel	—	130 nm	Grades 3-4 neutropenia	Abraxane [21–26]
Clinical studies	Liposomes	Daunorubicin	—	35–65 nm	Neutropenia, cardiotoxicity (decline in ejection fraction)	DaunoXome [27]
		Paclitaxel	—	180–200 nm	Grades 3-4 neutropenia, infusion-related reactions (pyrexia and chills)	Endo-TAG [28]
	Polymeric nanoparticles	Paclitaxel	—	20–50 nm	Sensory peripheral neuropathy, myalgia, and grades 3-4 neutropenia	Genexol-PM [29]
Preclinical; research	Liposomes	Doxorubicin	Estrogen receptor (ER)	243 ± 4.6 nm (polydispersity index = 0.16)	Not evaluated	ER-targeted liposomal doxorubicin [30]
			Tumor cell surface-bound nucleosomes	112 ± 7 nm	In vivo evaluation (auricular erythema manifestation)	Doxil-mAb 2C5 [31]
	Lipid nanoparticles	Mitoxantrone	—	61 nm (polydispersity index = 0.4295)	In vivo evaluation (acute toxicity study)	Mitoxantrone solid lipid nanoparticles (MTO-SLN) [32]
	Albumin-bound nanoparticles (Nab)	Paclitaxel	Clotted plasma protein	130 to 150 nm	Not evaluated	CREKA-Nab-paclitaxel [33]
			p32	130 to 150 nm	Not evaluated	LyP-1-Nab-paclitaxel [33]
		Doxorubicin	Y1 receptor	141.9 nm	In vitro cytotoxicity study	PNBL-NPY albumin nanoparticles [34]
	Dendrimers	Doxorubicin	—	10.8 nm (polydispersity index = 0.16)	In vivo evaluation (systemic and pulmonary tolerability)	DOX-Pegylated PLL dendrimers [35]
	Polymeric nanoparticles	Antisense (AS) against osteopontin (OPN) and bone sialoprotein (BSP)	—	281 ± 85 nm for OPN-AS; 294 ± 98 nm for BSP-AS	In vitro cytotoxicity study	AS-PLGA nanoparticles [36]
		siRNA against osteopontin (siOPN) and bone sialoprotein (siBSP)	—	320.60 ± 66.87 nm for siOPN; 293.40 ± 29.04 nm for siBSP	In vitro cytotoxicity study	siRNA-encapsulating polymeric biodegradable nanoparticles [37]
		Succinobucol	VCAM-1	53.0 ± 9.8 nm (polydispersity index = 0.196)	In vitro cytotoxicity study; in vivo evaluation of liver toxicity	Succinobucol self-assembled triblock polymer poloxamer P188 nanoparticles [38]
		Anti-miR-21, anti-miR-10b	uPA receptor	100 to 200 nm (polydispersity index = 0.09–0.264)	In vitro cytotoxicity study; in vivo evaluation of kidney and liver toxicity	uPA receptor-targeted antisense-loaded PLGA-b-PEG polymer nanoparticles (NPs) [39]
		Curcumin, bortezomib	Bone	235.5 ± 71.30 nm	In vitro cytotoxicity study	Alendronate-coated PLGA nanoparticles [40]
		Orlistat	Folate receptor	75.53 ± 1.029 nm (polydispersity index = 0.223)	In vivo evaluation of spleen, kidney, and liver toxicity	HEA-EHA copolymer micellar nanoparticles functionalized with folic acid [41]
		Doxorubicin, gadolinium		61.9 ± 5.0 nm	In vitro cytotoxicity study	Multifunctional PMAA-PS 80-g-St terpolymer nanoparticles [42]
		Cetuximab or trastuzumab, gadolinium-DOTA	EGFR or HER2	16.0 ± 1.5 nm for cetuximab-NIA; 16.3 ± 1.6 nm for trastuzumab-NIA	Not evaluated	Anti-EGFR or anti-HER2 poly(b-l-malic acid) polymeric nanoimaging agents (NIAs); β3 integrins [43]
	Silicon nanoparticles	Paclitaxel encapsulating liposomes,; quantum dots, and; iron oxide nanoparticles	E-selectin	1.6 ± 0.1 m	In vitro and in vivo studies	E-selectin thioaptamer-conjugated porous silicon (pSi) particles (ESTA-PSP) [44]
	Composite nanoparticles	Paclitaxel, rapamycin	HER2	150–200 nm (polydispersity index 0.2)	In vitro study (cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory response)	Anti-HER2-glycerol monooleate coated magnetic nanoparticles (GMO-MNPs) [45]
		Doxorubicin	integrins	137.2 ± 17.9 nm	In vitro cytotoxicity study	cRGD-iron oxide-based multicomponent nChain particles linked to liposomal doxorubicin [46]
			nChain	130 nm	In vitro cytotoxicity study	Herceptin-chitosan-conjugated pluronic-based nanocarriers (IONP/DOX-MFNC) [47]

Phase I; phase II; clinical practice only in South Korea; nanoparticles with theranostic application.