Application of Nanomaterials to Ensure Quality and Nutritional Safety of Food

Hossain, Akbar; Skalicky, Milan; Brestic, Marian; Mahari, Subhasis; Kerry, Rout George; Maitra, Sagar; Sarkar, Sukamal; Saha, Saikat; Bhadra, Preetha; Popov, Marek; Islam, Mst. Tanjina; Hejnak, Vaclav; Vachova, Pavla; Gaber, Ahmed; Islam, Tofazzal

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9336082

Journal of Nanomaterials

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Nanomaterials for Advanced Food Packaging and Food Quality Sensing Applications

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Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2021 | Article ID 9336082 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9336082

Application of Nanomaterials to Ensure Quality and Nutritional Safety of Food

Akbar Hossain,¹Milan Skalicky,²Marian Brestic,^2,3Subhasis Mahari,⁴Rout George Kerry,⁵Sagar Maitra,⁶Sukamal Sarkar,⁷Saikat Saha,⁸Preetha Bhadra,⁹Marek Popov,²Mst. Tanjina Islam,¹⁰and Vaclav Hejnak² et al.

Academic Editor: Swarup Roy

Received28 Jul 2021

Revised24 Oct 2021

Accepted25 Oct 2021

Published29 Nov 2021

Abstract

Nanomaterials (NMs) are emerging novel tools for preserving quality, enhancing shelf life, and ensuring food safety. Owing to the distinctive physicochemical characters, engineered NMs under varying sizes and dimensions have great potentials for application in the manufacturing, packaging, processing, and safety of quality agrifood. The promise of various kinds of novel NMs that are useful for food industries has opened a possibility of a new revolution in agroprocessing industries in both the emerging and advanced nations. The rapid advancement of nanoscience has provided a great impact on material science that has allowed researchers to understand every aspect of molecular complexity and its functions in life sciences. The reduced size of NMs that increase the surface area is useful in the specific target of different organs, and biodegradable nanospheres are helpful in the transport of bioactive molecules across the cellular barriers. However, nanotechnology creates a great revolution in several sections including agriculture and food industry and also reduces environmental pollution, while the toxicity of some NMs in the food industry poses a great concern to researchers for their greater application. However, most of the developed countries have regulatory control acts but developing countries do not have them yet. Therefore, for the safe use of NMs and also to minimize the health and environmental risks in both the developed and developing countries, it is indispensable to recognize the toxicity-constructed, toxicodynamic, and toxicokinetic features of NMs, which should carefully be emphasized at the home and industrial levels. The current study highlights the updates of the NMs to safeguard the quality and nutritional safety of foods at home and also at the industrial level.

1. Introduction

The food market demands new technologies, which are essential to keep market leadership in the food processing industry to produce fresh, authentic, convenient, and flavorful food products, prolonging the product’s shelf life and freshness with improved food quality [1]. Over the past few decades, nanotechnology has increasingly been considered to be attractive technology that has revolutionized the food sector. Nanotechnology has brought a new industrial revolution, and both the developed and developing countries are interested in investing more in this technology [2]. It is a technology on the nanometer scale and deals with the atoms, molecules, or macromolecules with any exterior size (surface or internal structure) in the nanoscale (around 1 nm to 100 nm) [3].

The applications of nanotechnology in the food sector can be summarized in two main groups that are food nanostructured ingredients and food nanosensing. Food nanostructured ingredients encompass a wide area from food processing to food packaging. In food processing, these nanostructures can be used as food additives, carriers for smart delivery of nutrients, anticaking agents, antimicrobial agents, fillers for improving mechanical strength and durability of the packaging material, etc., whereas food nanosensing can be applied to achieve better food quality and safety evaluation [4].

Due to the surprisingly new properties of any molecule at the nanoscale, the NMs have been industrially used in many nanotechniques in the field of electronics, medicine, healthcare products, bioremediation, sensing, agriculture, and others [5–7]. Benefits of using NMs in agriculture consist of improvement of quality and safety of foodstuffs, shrinkage of the excessive use of synthetic agronomic inputs, enhancement of fascinating nanoscale nourishments from the soil, and so on [1, 2]. Food wastage is the foremost loss in the food industry. It is estimated that throughout the supply chain, ˃1.3 billion metric tons of foodstuffs are misused annually, mostly due to the traditional postharvest practices and transportation, conventional storage, and delayed marketing accessibilities [8]. In today’s competitive world, reduction of food wastage ensuring food for an ever-increasing population necessitates nanotechnology in agriculture. It has been observed that wastage of food materials due to spoilage is a regular phenomenon due to microbial contamination. NMs have shortened the storage duration and secured food materials under stored conditions [9]. Several lines of evidence suggest that nanotechnology (NT) plays a vital role in enhancing agricultural productivity and also enhancing product quality and safety, which lead to upholding healthier nations [10–12]. Various roles of NMs for enhancing agricultural productivity as well as food and nutritional safety are shown in Figure 1. Owing to the distinctive physiobiological characters, different sizes of engineered nanoparticles (Figure 2) have great potentials to ensure quality foodstuffs [13, 14]. Nanomaterials and their potential prospects and use are listed in Table 1.

NMs enhanced preservation ability and quality of foodstuffs. For example, the storage duration of vegetable tomato has been improved by the nanoencapsulated quercetin [28]. Besides, NMs also enhance the storage and packing duration of other fruits and vegetables [28]. Without boiling, nanoscale filters could remove the harmful bacteria from the milk and milk products, as well as water and beer [36]. Engineered nanoparticles enhance biological ability, sensitivity, consistency, and steadiness or conceal the unfriendly flavor and odor of food [37–39]. It is also portrayed in different research articles that nanoparticles can also provide flavor and color and regulate various enzymes and antibrowning agents, as well as antioxidant activity which improved the shelf life of processed foods [40]. Although a large frame of literature is available on the application of quality and nutritional safety of foods, no comprehensive review has so far been published according to our knowledge. In this present review, we have tried to summarize recently published research in the field of the application of NMs on foods and especially in food technology including application, toxicology, potential challenges, and regulations of uses of NMs to prepare a compressive insight in this field.

The application of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in food and allied industries is increasing at a brisk rate for its multipurpose use [41]. Global market values of NM-based products were estimated at around 20 billion euros [42], and these values are increasing at a rapid rate. The various uses and possible functions of ENMs in the food and agricultural sectors are briefly discussed below, and these will certainly help in ensuring food quality.

2.1. Engineered Nanomaterials in Agricultural Production Systems for Food Security

The agricultural sector provides a significant contribution to the economic growth of developing countries [43]. Sustainable allocation of food is firmly determined by the sustainable productivity of the agricultural production system. It is reported that at least 33% of arable soil got already degraded to some extent, and this situation is getting worse day by day. It also is anticipated that out of the total food production, 30% of the food is wasted due to improper management [42]. The current nutrient management technology, especially nitrogenous fertilizers, is a highly energy-intensive system and contributes a significant portion to the raising of greenhouse gas emissions [44].

It is expected that NT may show the way of development in technologically advanced agriculture and allied sectors, such as plant protection chemicals, plant nutrients, and water, by utilizing a series of high-tech NMs. With the improvement of agricultural science and technology, the pesticide and fertilizer delivery system gradually became smarter, and scientists are trying to increase the use of efficiencies of the final product at field levels. The development of various novel nanoagrochemicals in the form of “nanobased or nanoencapsulated fertilizers and pesticides” is one of the greatest significant interventions in this arena [45]. Researchers from throughout the world found that nanoagrochemicals showed extraordinary properties like accelerated cation exchange capacity, ion adsorption, and higher surface area than conventional bulky materials [46].

The effects of different NPs on plant growth and phytotoxicity were reported by several works including magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles and plant growth [47]; alumina, zinc, and zinc oxide on seed germination and root growth of five higher plant species; radish, rape, lettuce, corn, and cucumber, silver nanoparticles, and seedling growth in wheat [48]; sulfur nanoparticles on tomato [49]; and zinc oxide in mung bean, as well as nanoparticles of AlO, CuO, FeO, MnO, NiO, and ZnO [50]. Silver nanoparticles can stimulate wheat growth and yield. Soil applied with 25 ppm SNPs had highly favorable growth-promoting effects on wheat growth and yield. Ghidan et al. [51] showed synthesized nanoparticles of magnesium oxide (MgO) and tested the effect of different concentrations on the green peach aphid (GPA) under greenhouse conditions [52, 53]. The synthesis of nanomaterials of copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), magnesium hydroxide (MgOH), and magnesium oxide (MgO) has been carried out successfully by using aqueous extracts of Punica granatum peels, Olea europaea leaves, and Chamaemelum nobile flowers [54]. Nanomaterials such as copper oxide (CuONPs), zinc oxide (ZnONPs), magnesium hydroxide (MgOHNPs), and magnesium oxide (MgONPs) effectively control various pests and diseases [55].

2.2. Engineered Nanomaterials in Food Application

The use of naturally occurring nanomaterials (NONMs) in foodstuffs and allied sectors is increasing day by day [56]. Various NONMs have been utilized in the European God House since early progress [57]. Milk (mainly casein micelle) comprises one of the most useful natural nanomaterials distinguished as nanocapsules with a size of 100–200 nm [58]. Additionally, control of casein micelle through mixed enzymatic reactions can create nanodesigned foods like cheese. Along with the casein micelle, nanofibers (∼4 nm in length) composed of β-lactoglobulin are also present in milk. These nanofibers are commonly manipulated during processing via the addition of pressure and heat and/or the modification of pH; and, in the case of yogurt, they aggregate into larger structures forming a supramolecular network capable of forming an elastic gel network [59]. The application of NT is expanded into different orders, including medicinal, automated rationale, horticulture, and food applications.

Security appraisal and affirmation on ENMs is necessary as its scale could be disseminated all through the body framework. Another proviso is the absence of blended NT rules to help food makers in pronouncing the nearness of nanofixing or ENMs in their food items. Because of this, makers confronted challenges in guaranteeing the nearness of ENMs in their items by alluding to the existing laws of food manufacturing and processing [42]. Henceforth, ENMs are frequently utilized in the upstream procedure of the food framework including farming utilization, food packaging and processing ingredients, and the safety of food at home and industrial levels [57–59]. At present, the effects and reactions of ENM utilization in the value chain of food are seriously concentrated to guarantee their security for the well-being of human beings.

Several nanomaterials are used as antimicrobial agents in food packing. Nanoparticles currently used are titanium dioxide (TiO₂), zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon oxide (SiO₂), magnesium oxide (MgO), gold, and silver [60]. Among the different inorganic nanoparticle-based antimicrobial agents, silver has been extensively studied by many researchers because of its several advantages over other nanoparticles such as copper, zinc, gold, ZnO, Al₂O₃, and TiO₂ [61].

2.3. Nanomaterials in Food Security

Adoption of the sustainable food production system is always advocated for ensuring eco-friendly and economically viable food production system in the long run [62]. Nanotechnological approaches could limit the unfavorable issues of the existing food fabrication and processing system by enlightening the security and efficiency of food through the successful implementation of nanobased input options and nanodevices in agriculture. Different investigations on the utilization of ENMs in these ventures have been directed, comprising the nanosensor for checking plant development and distinguishing plant maladies [63], the improvement of indicative devices [64], the advancement of nanoplant protection chemicals and nanofertilizers [65, 66], the foundation of moderate discharge fertilizers and pesticides, and the improvement of the useful foodstuff framework and nanoempowered packaging and processing of food [67].

2.4. Nanomaterials as Food Flavors and Food Processing

In food enterprises, methodologies of nanoscience are utilized for food flavors and processing as top-down and bottom-up procedures. The nanobased top-down method includes the decreased molecule size employing physical preparation, for example, handling and homogenization, while the “bottom-up” method includes the self-aggregation procedure of NMs at the nanoscale through parity of differentiating noncovalent interactions. NONMs are instances of “top-down” NMs, while “bottom-up” NMs are nanoemulsions, nanolipid congregations, liposomes, and micelles to increase the quality, flavor, taste, solidity, and constancy of food items. As often as possible, the most utilized food-added substance, titanium dioxide, fills in as shade that upgrades the white pigmentation in different nonwhite food [68, 69].

Intensifying the health hazard related to an inactive way of life accelerates the creation of food items with payback in healthiness. Antioxidants are mostly used in strengthening and improving the usefulness of food items. But they are unstable with low biological ability when included in the dissimilar food microstructure, and as a result, antioxidants could not show their genuine health benefits to the ultimate consumers [70]. The development of nanoparticles prompts the chance of upgrading the biodynamic solidness and usefulness in the fortified food item [42]. Antioxidants are often encapsulated by the nanoparticles to ensure the permanence of the storage duration. Anthocyanin, an antioxidant compound with high water dissolvability, is generally in various organic fruits including blueberry and strawberry to minimize pH neutrality [71].

2.5. Food Contact Nanomaterials in Food Packaging

In the processing, packaging, and storage of food at home and in industries, NMs can be categorized as follows: (a) lead to advancement in food packaging science, (b) avert food deterioration, (c) allow the keeping of food newness and quality, (d) give assurance on food safety, (e) expand food timeframe of realistic usability, (f) lessen food waste, and (g) give ongoing checking of the quality of food (by using nanosensors). NMs, for example, Ag, Au, and ZnO, are recognized for their antimicrobial properties [72]. These NMs help to sustain the hygienic food preparation as well as the storage and anticipation from the contamination of harmful microorganisms [73]. A few nanoforms that have picked up an endorsement for usage in food commerce ingredients are SiO₂, titanium nitride, carbon dark, kaolin, and copolymeric nanoform [74]. Of late, a greener option such as nanoencapsulated common antimicrobial extortion has been incorporated on different surfaces as opposed to utilizing different chemicals/synthetics [75–77]. The eco-friendly packaging technique is an inclining application in clean technological innovation, emerging with public alertness to conserve environmental safety for the future generation [78]. The utilization of nanocomposites for food packaging is a natural well-disposed choice to diminish or supplant the utilization of plastic which is nonbiodegradable [79]. Biodegradability of bundling could be upgraded through the presentation of an inorganic molecule, for example, nanoearth, arranged from regular and adjusted montmorillonite [80].

2.6. Nanoenabled Sensors in Food Application

Recent advancements in food processing industries created an arena of diversified processed food products, and these industries used different types of packaging materials to keep the product fresh as long as possible. But these processed and packaged food materials may be contaminated by the toxins produced by the different microorganisms [81]. Food-contaminating microorganisms can ruin food products by deteriorating taste, flavor, and aroma and may also infect humans. But nowadays, the detection and mitigation of food adulteration vis-à-vis the finding of the authenticity of band products are major challenging issues in food industries [81]. Application of different nanoenabled sensors may be successfully utilized to overcome such challenges of food industries such as the detection of pathogenic bacteria, food-contaminating toxins, and adulterants, as well as taste and smell of foods. The various uses of nanoenabled sensors in food and allied sectors are summarized in Figure 3.

The different nanoenabled sensors are effectively applied to detect the occurrence of pollutants in foodstuffs [54], trace plants from sources to intake, and identify features responsible for food decomposition [81]. Gold nanoparticle- (AuNP-) based nanosensors nowadays are presently extensively applied for the recognition of aflatoxin contamination in milk [81]. Advanced nanosensors also can be used to distinguish the existence of multiple pathogens or food toxins [54]. In the agriculture and food sectors, carbon nanotubes and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are frequently applied for the recognition of toxins such as melamine, pesticides, and toxins in food items [82, 83]. The involvement of nanoenabled sensors in various aspects of food industries not only helps the uses for speedy and highly subtle applications for the exposure of the contaminants but also reduces the involvement of money and manpower as compared to the conventional detection methods.

3. Impact of Nanomaterials in Securing Food Safety and Quality

NMs are considered to be one of the emerging products for the benefit of humans. The use of NMs is predicted to increase remarkably in different areas, including agriculture, food technology, and medical sciences. The application of NMs in the field of drug delivery systems, farming, cosmetics, food industry, and personal healthcare systems invites contamination of natural resources in the long run. Eventually, there is a potential chance of getting the residues of NMs into the human food chain. Successful utilization of NMs for different purposes would readily accelerate the global economy simultaneously. In the application of these NTs in every sector, one should measure the positive and negative consequences. Before approving any nanomaterial for practical use in the food industry, a rigorous study on its toxicity is needed to ensure its safety to human health and the environment.

3.1. Characterization Techniques of Nanomaterials in Food Matrices

The emergence of NT has provided support to the application of different NMs not only in the field of food industry but also in the field of biomedicine [84], optics, proteomics, sensing [85], energy, and electronics [86]. The certain conventional method of characterization of NMs includes size, morphology, zeta potential, and polydispersity indices. These characterization technologies help in the basic understanding of the shape, size, dimension, charge, porosity, surface area, and structure of the nanocomposites that can be understood by chemical characterization. However, understanding the physicochemical features of the nanocomposites requires enhancement in the technology of characterization and resolution ranges.

Various spectroscopic and electron microscopic methods are useful for food matrix estimation. Usually, biomaterials are present in the form of polymers that enhance the resolution capability of the material. Some of the major spectroscopy techniques used in the characterization of biomaterials and NMs are X-ray absorbance spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and UV-visible spectroscopy. However, advanced microscopic characterization techniques are also used for understanding the morphology, size, and interaction of the NMs. Skimming investigation microscopy, nuclear power microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, confocal laser perusing microscopy, and field radiation skimming electron microscopy are useful for a detailed description of NMs.

X-ray absorbance spectroscopy can provide information regarding the elemental map and electronic structure of a given compound [87]. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is used to understand the molecular structure, quality control, and purity of the samples. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy helps in understanding the structure and the chemical bonds formed in the formation of the sample [88]. UV-visible spectroscopy is utilized in the measurement of preoccupation and diffusion of specified NMs in the form of resolution. Microscopic techniques like electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy help in understanding biological interaction and visualization. All these techniques help in the characterization of different food matrices to analyze different prospects of the biomolecules for enhancing the understanding of the biomolecules used in human consumption.

3.2. Nanomaterials in Food Processing

Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in various aspects of food production [89]. It has brought a vital impression on the field of the food sector and is aimed at providing better quality and preservation [90]. The growth of the global economy depends upon the successful implementation of NT [91]. The food industry is one of the sectors that could get a lot of benefit from NT with great prospects for quality, safety, and preservation of food materials [92]. Recently, several nanostructured-based food ingredients are developed which claim to offer improved taste, consistency, and texture along with increased shelf life [92, 93]. Advancement in NT has also reduced the wastage of food due to microbial contamination [93]. Several nanocarriers, with different particle sizes, are developed for carrying the food additives in the food product without any disturbance in their morphology [94].

3.3. Nanomaterials in Food Packaging

Plastic is measured as the furthermost extensively essential polymer for packing materials in our daily life [95]. It is estimated that more than 350 million tons of plastics are utilized in our daily life across the globe [95, 96]. However, most of the plastics are disposable items and these are not environmentally friendly. Based on the burning issue, significant investigations have already been done for the proper utilization of biopolymers as a substitute for partial alteration of plastics [97]. Recently, several nanomaterials have been established as an auspicious approach for improving the efficient utilization of food packaging ingredients [98]. Among them, nanomaterials such as reinforcement agents in different biopolymers including alginate [99], chitosan [100], gelatin [101], pullulan [102], polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [103], chitosan/PVA blend [104], starch/PVA blend [105], and cellulose nanostructures (cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and cellulose nanofibers (CNF)) have been widely studied as thin-layer coatings [106] for food packing. Several useful NMs as a material for packaging that can be used for the improvement of food packaging are shown in Figure 4.

NM-based packaging products have several advantages over their conventional counterparts [107]. They provide mechanical strength, antimicrobial films, and the detection of pathogens via nanosensing, tipping off the customers about the freshness of food. Several organic compounds such as essential oil and organic acid are used as polymetric matrices [108]. Inorganic nanoparticles can provide a strong antimicrobial activity and stability in extreme environmental conditions [6]. NM-based packaging is an energetic wrapping material that physically interrelates with the food items and inhibits microbial growth. NMs not only are used for antimicrobial food packaging but also provide a barrier from mechanical shock and extreme thermal shock to extend their shelf life [109]. Usage of inert nanoscale fillers like chitosan and silica nanoparticles [110] renders their properties such as fire resistance, as well as lighter, stronger, and better thermal properties.

4. Nanobased Sensors for the Recognition of Food Quality and Storage Diseases

4.1. Nanomaterial-Based Sensors for Food Quality

Food engineering is continuously confronted by the incidences of foodborne ailments. Foodborne disease is demarcated as some illness typically either communicable or lethal in nature, initiated by mediators that go in the body via the digestion of food [111]. The contributing organisms may be bacteria, protozoa and viruses, fungal or bacterial toxins, pesticides, and metal ions. Some pathogens associated with major foodborne diseases are Bacillus cereus, Brucella, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhi, S. paratyphi, Shigella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, and V. parahaemolyticus [112]. To manage foodborne disease incidences, it is essential to evolve the cost-effective and easy methods for instant identification of pathogen contamination or existence of toxic substances which can substitute the orthodox testing methods [113]. The PCR-constructed approaches and immunoassay-based procedures are conventional approaches and routinely followed. There is no doubt that these methods are scientific, but there is a need for costly instruments and chemical components, skilled human resources, sizable sample preparation, and lengthy processes involved in these molecular techniques, thus suspending preventive management in patients [114, 115]. There is an urgent need for the development of unique techniques which will be easy to use, rapid, low cost, and delicate for site-specific recognition and steady and movable sensing kits. NT was capable of covering some techniques in this regard in the preceding period (Figure 5).

The adaptability of NMs has provided ample opportunity for the usage of operative nanosensors in the food manufacturing plant for the supervision of food quality [116]. Recent developments in the use of sensors based on nanoparticles used in the food industry are briefly discussed below.

4.1.1. Gold Nanoparticle- (AuNP-) Based Sensors

Escherichia coli is one of the pernicious bacteria affecting human health. Among different strains of the bacterium, E. coli O157:H7 is the serotype strain causing foodborne diseases. For the detection of this strain, a mingling movement piezoelectric biosensor (PEB) has been established. The PEB is composed of the E. coli O157:H7 eaeA gene precise AuNP-conjugated (AuNPC) thiolate investigation which detects the presence of it [117]. Moreover, the AuNPC with E. coli O157:H7 antibodies was also made to detect the presence of the bacterial strain in milk. The screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) technology is composed of 13 nm AuNP which can detect E. coli O157:H7 precise antibodies. H₂O₂ and ferrocene dicarboxylic acid (FeDC) play the role of substrates in the detection process. The AuNP and FeDC boost the recognition limit to [23]. The AuNPC-based electrochemical immunoassay not only detects the existence of E. coli O157:H7 but also is used for noticing Salmonella typhimurium [118]. In the occurrence of Cu-enhancer solution and ascorbic acid, the bacteria bind to the AuNPC polyclonal antibodies. And the Cu helps in the recognition of S. typhimurium by anodic disrobing voltammetry [119]. The AuNP-based sensors can detect mycotoxins present in food. The AuNP aptasensor has been made for the detection of aflatoxin B1 [120]. Similarly, aflatoxin B2 can also be detected by the AuNP aptasensor constructed on the colorimetric technique [121].

4.1.2. Magnetic Nanoparticle- (MNP-) Based Sensors

Magnetic NM-derived sensors are used for sensing and eliminating food contaminants [122]. The incubation of the MNPs with fluorescently labeled concanavalin resulted in the visualization of the bacterial cells [123]. Moreover, the presence of Salmonella in milk can also be detected by MNPs. The immobilized antibodies responsible for the detection of the presence of bacteria in foods are eliminated by the application of the magnetic field. The TiO₂ nanocrystals play a great part in the discovery of germs in the foodstuff by using the UV-noticeable spectrophotometer with a recognition limit of 100 CFU mL^-1 for milk [124]. The Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria from food and water can rapidly be detected by amine-functionalized MNPs. The MNPs are also used for the detection of Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, E. coli, Sarcina lutea, S. aureus, Salmonella, Proteus vulgaris, and P. aeruginosa. In the fast detection process, the quantity of amine-functionalized MNPs and the ionic strength played a crucial role [125].

4.1.3. Quantum Dot- (QD-) Based Sensors

The fluorometric-based sensors can be made by semiconductor QDs as these can exhibit electronic and size-dependent properties [126], and the CdSe quantum dots are used frequently for this purpose [127]. The QD-based biosensors are suitable for the detection of S. typhimurium in the chicken carcass wash water. The principle of the response of biotin to the streptavidin-coated QDs was used for the detection of germs. Actually, the fluorescence intensity is measured as the cell number and the limit considered is about [128]. Generally, for the recognition of Cholera, Shiga toxin, and Staphylococcal enterotoxin A, the CdSe QD-derived sensors are used.

5. Regulation of Nanotechnology (NT) in the Food Industry

Nanotechnology (NT) has been developing seriously in numerous businesses in recent decades. Several recently created solicitations for this innovation in the food and horticulture industry have started a renewal in food handling, bundling, and supplement conveyance. A changing trend in physicochemical properties of inbuilt nanomaterials was mostly followed in this sector. Such NT-helped structures have significantly propelled the innovations utilized to improve food quality, increment rack capacity life, and eventually aid the sanitation and quality of the observation framework. As of October 2017, the NT Consumer Products Inventory started by Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars and the Project on Emerging NT recorded 118 food and refreshment items out of an aggregate of 1944 items from 715 organizations around the world, comprising an assortment of NMs [129]. Alongside the most recent accomplishments in food, NT comes with an expanded open concern over the security of the new innovation. Guidelines and enactments fall behind the quick turns of events in the NT business. Thus, the security context and real-life welfare of humanity are sustained through NT-based food products and agribusiness items.

Although numerous nations have either begun or given the direction for sanitation evaluation on NT, impressive difficulties stay for most creating nations. Eminently, financial development and improvement are higher needs for the creating nations, leaving such well-being concerns as NT to be tended to at the universal level with the collective endeavors in food, water, and farming [130]. With the likely effects of food and agribusiness, NTs on human and ecological well-being are as yet not completely comprehended, and plentiful insurance with respect to all partners is important to make sure of the sheltered use of novel NT in the food and farming segments for quite a while (Figure 6). In this survey, the most recent advances in the comprehension of nanotoxicology, hazard appraisal, and administrative guidelines on the utilization of NT in food and horticulture items are quickly surveyed and talked about [131].

5.1. Definition of Nanomaterials in Some Countries

Different countries like the USA, Japan, and European countries have found different ways to define NMs which are briefly discussed in Figure 7.

5.2. Regulations for Food Assessment

Different explorations identified with the use of NT in the food division continue expanding and drive the extension of the likely utilization of NT in the food industry. Consequently, the chance of human interaction with these NMs likewise expanded essentially either deliberately or unexpectedly. In any case, just a couple of studies have concentrated on the expected poisonousness of the nearness of nanomaterials in nourishments, by investigating food tests utilized in food-added substances/fixings and food bundling [132]. NMs that are utilized as food-added substances will have direct contact with inner human organs. The degrees of the introduction of nanomaterials on the human subject on their fixation in food and the amount of the food devoured are studied. Expanding employments of NMs in nourishments have pulled in significant consideration of open and government areas. Nanocapsules could enter the human body through oral admission. For instance, lipid NMs were created by utilizing polyethylene glycol (PEG) with different chain lengths as emulsifiers to control their processing destiny in the gastrointestinal lot. In any case, the well-being of nanoencapsulation remains not researched and calls for additional hazard evaluation, especially for long haul poisonousness [133].

5.3. Regulations for Food Contact Material Risk Assessment

NT is one of the emerging technologies which can redefine different dimensions of our lives. In recent years, enormous development in using nanotechnologies is noted including food sectors [14, 39]. The food sector is one of the various sectors which witnessed an application of engineered nanomaterials with anticipated benefits starting from production to packaging. But several materials are being used in foods for different purposes, of which some are found to be carcinogenic and reasons for many diseases. These materials are presented in Figure 8.

5.4. Regulations for Labeling Nanomaterials

The application of NT in the food and farming enterprises is a recently evolved theme, which was first inclined by the US Branch of Agriculture by means of documentation given in September 2003. Later, the EU, Japan, China, Canada, India, Iran, Thailand, and numerous different nations overall additionally put endeavors into creating security direction or enactment. Much exertion has been committed to advancing the sheltered use of NMs and NT in the food and rural segments. Examination gatherings and meetings to talk about the turn of events, application, well-being, and guideline of NMs and NT have been held consistently; a few models are as follows: (i)Nano Forum (http://www.nanoforum2017.com/)(ii)Asia Nano Forum (https://www.asia-anf.org/)(iii)International Conference on Advanced NT (http://NT.alliedacademies.com/)(iv)World Nano Conference (https://nano.conferenceseries.com/)

In any case, in all actuality, there are a lot more nations that have not drafted any guidelines and direction for the creation and utilization of nanoempowered items [138, 139]. Based on the available literature, the regulation provided by various countries and organizations are listed below (Table 2).

5.5. Toxicological Aspects of NMs

Although ENMs have many benefits particularly for food quality and safety, the imbalance and uncareful use of NMs have observed nanotoxicity crisis effects in the human body [140]. NMs are shaped through molecular-level engineering (for example, a small scale (<100 nm)) to attain exclusive features [141]. Conversely, these modified properties have shown new encounters for accepting, expecting, handling, and thinking for food and environmental safety since the use of NMs has been found to be a potential health hazard recently [142, 143].

For example, nonbiodegradable materials (such as plastics), degradable materials, biodegradables [144], and smart packaging (containing sensors and nanocomposites) or even edible packaging (using lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, etc.) have been widely used in food packaging [145]. Biodegradable and edible packaging materials have observed major problems due to poor mechanical properties, low degradation temperatures, humidity, and gas permeability that prevent expansion [144].

The size of nanoparticles is an important factor in observed dermal cell cytotoxicity in vitro [146]. Absorbed nanoparticles in different absorption routes such as digestion, inhalation, or skin absorption could trigger an immune system response [147]. After absorption, nanoparticles may enter the bloodstream and settle in different tissues such as the brain or trigger immune responses [148]. The small size of these particles allows them to pass through different biological barriers and settle in tissues like the central nervous system [149]. Therefore, the size of the nanoparticles in different routes of exposure should be considered in assessing the safety of nanomaterials that are to be used in food and food-related industries [150].

During the production of nanoparticles, many reagents that are used could be toxic [140]. For instance, some observed toxic effects of carbon nanotubes and semiconductor nanoparticles are related to residual reagents during synthesis. The remaining reagents and impurities may hinder our understanding of the possible side effects of carbon nanotubes. Iron ions and impurities can accelerate oxidative stress in human cells [151]. Crystallinity is another important aspect of chemical composition. Titanium oxide has three different levels of crystallinity that each has different cytotoxic effects [152].

Surface chemistry is one of the most important factors affecting the interaction of nanoparticles and biological systems [153]. There are many factors such as hydrophobicity, charge, roughness, and, most importantly, surface chemistry in the surfaces of nanostructures that could affect their cytotoxicity [154]. Evidence indicates that positively charged nanoparticles are more toxic than negative or neutral nanoparticles [155]. Solubility is also important in the toxicity of nanoparticles [140]. For instance, soluble (hydrophilic) titanium oxide nanoparticles are more toxic than insoluble titanium oxide nanoparticles [156]. Some soluble nickel compounds are recognized as carcinogenic agents [157].

A report by the British Royal Society revealed that to avoid environmental and health risks from nanotechnology, a comprehensive understanding should be necessary before their utilization [158]. The knowledge from the overview in the earlier findings revealed that nanotechnology is a challenging technology for use in food industries due to the distinctive physicochemical features of NMs to enlighten and manufacture foodstuffs. Therefore, the toxicity of NMs in food and the environment has become a great concern to the researcher for the safe use of the emerging tool in food industries for improving quality by ensuring packing and processing and extending shelf life [159]. Therefore, to minimize the health and environmental risks, it is essential to understand the illumination associations between the toxicity-constructed, toxicodynamic, and toxicokinetic features of NMs [160–162]. The information on the nanotoxicological exploration, including the connections of NMs with other toxic substances, by improving or sinking the hostile health hazard as well as environmental pollution, will be helpful to alleviate the adverse effect of NMs [163, 164].

6. Challenges toward the Safe Use of Nanomaterials for the Quality and Safety of Foodstuffs

The incorporation of NMs in the food sector is one of the emergent and pioneering novel approaches for safer and quality foods [46, 60, 61, 63]. But, the use of NMs in foodstuffs, particularly the insoluble and biopersistent nanoparticles, must be safe for consumer health and the environment [45]. Although NMs offer a lot of potential welfare, the anxiety is that NMs with huge volatile exteriors may irritate biological processes to reach those parts of the body. Therefore, for the safe use of NMs, clear fit-for-purpose definitions of NMs and NT are needed. The authenticated approaches for the recognition and categorization of NMs in complex food matrices are currently unavailable [63].

Though there are several advantages of using these NMs, in reality, the use of these materials by farmers is still not encouraging. Numerous studies revealed that less availability and high price as compared to conventional products are considered the major cause. On the other side, a fallacy regarding its use, related to the safety and security of ENM use in the agricultural production system, has played a synergistic role in its less acceptance, while the manufacturers are also in doubt and still wavering on the large-scale production cost of nanomaterials in agriculture [66]. Therefore, an exceeding collaboration between industries, regulatory organizations, and research institutes as well as interdisciplinary research is required to investigate the promising possibility of ENMs in agricultural sectors.

Most of the developed countries have regulatory control acts for the safe usage of NMs. Since the application of NT in developing countries is at the initial level, the safe use of the NMs should be emphasized at the home and industrial levels [56–59]. A hardheaded regulatory oversight in some countries, mostly underdeveloped countries, sometimes hinders the wide use of NT and also creates limitations to safeguard a case-by-case premarket protection evaluation of NT-derived foodstuffs. Besides these, the knowledge gaps regarding the thoughtfulness of the possessions, actions, and belongings of NMs also limit the broader applications of NT in the food sector both at the home and industrial levels.

7. Conclusion

Nanotechnology is emerging as a potential tool for ensuring the quality and safety of agrifood. The present study highlights the updates of NT to confirm the superiority and safety of foodstuffs at home and also in industrial corridors. However, several benefits of NT in food sectors propose huge prospects for the upliftment of public nourishment and health in developing countries, while the toxicity of NMs in the food industry is a great concern of researchers for their greater application. Therefore, the use of NMs in foodstuffs, particularly the insoluble and biopersistent nanoparticles, must be evaluated before utilization for ensuring consumer health and environmental safety. However, most of the developed countries have regulatory control acts for the safe use of NMs, but most of the developing countries do not yet have supervisory agenda for the production and commercialization of NMs in food and other industries. Therefore, the safe usage of NT in food sectors in developing countries should carefully be emphasized at the home and industrial levels. However, a hardheaded regulatory misunderstanding and also knowledge gaps regarding the thoughtfulness of the belongings, activities, and properties of NMs also sometimes limit the broader applications of NT in the sector of food both at the home and manufacturing levels. Thus, a globally concerted effort is needed to develop protocols for effective NM use for the quality and safety of foodstuffs.

Data Availability

Data used in the article are available in the form of tables and figures.

Consent is not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ Contributions

The contributions of the authors involved in this study are as follows: conceptualization: A.H., R.G.K., Sa.M., and Su.S.; methodology: A.H.; software: A.H., M.S., and M.B.; writing—original draft preparation: A.H., R.G.K., Su.M., Sa.M., Su.S., P.B., and M.T.I; writing—review and editing: A.H., M.S., M.B., M.P., A.G., V.H., P.V., and T.I.; and funding acquisition: M.B., A.G., and M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the article.

Supplementary Materials

Graphical abstract. (Supplementary Materials)

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Copyright © 2021 Akbar Hossain et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Journal of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials for Advanced Food Packaging and Food Quality Sensing Applications

Application of Nanomaterials to Ensure Quality and Nutritional Safety of Food

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Application of Engineered Nanomaterials in Food-Related Areas

2.1. Engineered Nanomaterials in Agricultural Production Systems for Food Security

2.2. Engineered Nanomaterials in Food Application

2.3. Nanomaterials in Food Security

2.4. Nanomaterials as Food Flavors and Food Processing

2.5. Food Contact Nanomaterials in Food Packaging

2.6. Nanoenabled Sensors in Food Application

3. Impact of Nanomaterials in Securing Food Safety and Quality

3.1. Characterization Techniques of Nanomaterials in Food Matrices

3.2. Nanomaterials in Food Processing

3.3. Nanomaterials in Food Packaging

4. Nanobased Sensors for the Recognition of Food Quality and Storage Diseases

4.1. Nanomaterial-Based Sensors for Food Quality

4.1.1. Gold Nanoparticle- (AuNP-) Based Sensors

4.1.2. Magnetic Nanoparticle- (MNP-) Based Sensors

4.1.3. Quantum Dot- (QD-) Based Sensors

5. Regulation of Nanotechnology (NT) in the Food Industry

5.1. Definition of Nanomaterials in Some Countries

5.2. Regulations for Food Assessment

5.3. Regulations for Food Contact Material Risk Assessment

5.4. Regulations for Labeling Nanomaterials

5.5. Toxicological Aspects of NMs

6. Challenges toward the Safe Use of Nanomaterials for the Quality and Safety of Foodstuffs

7. Conclusion

Data Availability

Consent

Conflicts of Interest

Authors’ Contributions

Supplementary Materials

References

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