Factors Associated with High Sodium Intake Assessed from 24-hour Urinary Excretion and the Potential Effect of Energy Intake

Table 2

High sodium intake predicted by sociodemography, clinical parameter, and dietary intake.

Risk factors	High sodium intake
	OR (95% CI)	value
Sociodemographic
Age	1.00 (1.00, 1.02)	0.653
Sex
Women	Reference
Men	2.14 (1.60, 2.88)	<0.001
Marital status
Single	Reference
Married	0.92 (0.66, 1.28)	0.619
Ethnicity
Malay	Reference
Chinese	0.70 (0.38, 1.26)	0.229
Indian	0.99 (0.43, 2.28)	0.991
Bumiputera Sabah	0.90 (0.49, 1.64)	0.733
Bumiputera Sarawak	0.25 (0.10, 0.63)	0.003
Education level
Secondary and below	Reference
Form 6/diploma	0.70 (0.49, 1.02)	0.703
College/university	0.77 (0.53, 1.12)	0.765
Income	1.00	0.644
History of diabetes
No	Reference
Yes	1.51 (0.74, 3.09)	0.254
History of hypertension
No	Reference
Yes	1.17 (0.72,1.91)	0.520
Clinical parameter
BMI (kg/m^2)
Normal	Reference
Overweight/obese	1.69 (1.28, 2.23)	<0.001
Abdominal obese
No	Reference
Yes	1.45 (1.10, 1.91)	0.008
Blood pressure (mmHg)
Systolic	1.01 (1.00, 1.02)	0.020
Diastolic blood pressure	1.01 (1.00, 1.02)	0.068
Dietary intake
Adjusted carbohydrate (g/day)^†	0.98 (0.86, 1.13)	0.794
Adjusted protein (g/day)^†	1.20 (1.01, 1.44)	0.040
Adjusted fat (g/day)^†	0.89 (0.77, 1.01)	0.079
Adjusted sodium (mg/day)^†	1.17 (1.01, 1.35)	0.033
Adjusted potassium (mg/day)^†	0.94 (0.82, 1.07)	0.347
Adjusted calcium (mg/day)^†	0.94 (0.82, 1.06)	0.322

^†Energy-adjusted value. Significant at value < 0.001. Significant at value < 0.05.