|
| (i) Avascular stage of development |
| (ii) Notch-signaling pathway |
| (iii) Hedgehog-signaling pathway |
| (iv) Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) |
| (v) Prolyl hydroxylase (PHD)-hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF) system |
| (vi) Aerobic glycolysis (“Warburg effect”) |
| (vii) Oxidative and nitrosative stress |
| (viii) Antioxidant defenses: glutamine metabolism, oxidative and nonoxidative pentose phosphate pathways |
| (ix) Matrix metalloproteinases |
| (x) IκB kinase/nuclear factor (NF)-κB (IKK/NF-κB) system |
| (xi) Chemokines and adhesion molecules |
| (xii) Toll-like receptors |
| (xiii) Lymphangiogenesis |
| (xiv) Prostaglandins and leukotrienes active metabolism |
| (xv) Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) |
| (xvi) Tumoral/embryonic antigens |
| (xvii) Lymphoid neogenesis |
| (xviii) Epithelial mesenchymal transition |
| (xix) Mesenchymal stem cells/fibroblasts |
| (xx) Growth factors and chemotactic factors for mesenchymal stem cells |
| (a) Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) |
| (b) Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) |
| (c) Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) |
| (d) Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) |
| (xxi) Angiogenesis (“angiogenic switch”) |
| (a) Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) |
| (b) Angiopoietin-1 |
| (c) Endothelial cell chemotaxis |
| (xxii) Selective metabolic advantage |
|
