The Adverse Effects of Air Pollution on the Nervous System

Table 2

The effects of air pollutants on the central nervous system in vivo.

Pollutants	Species	Route of administration	Assays	Key findings and outcome	References
PMs
	Mouse (ApoE^−/−)	Inhalation	TH immunostaining	DA neurotoxicity; Astrogliosis	[66]
CAPs	Mouse (ApoE^−/−)	Inhalation	EMSA; Western blotting	NFκB and AP-1 activation; JNK activation	[67]
	Mouse	Inhalation	EMSA; ELISA	NFκB activation	[68]
				Increased TNFα and IL-1 α levels
DEPs	Rat	Inhalation	IHC, RT-PCR; Western blotting	Increased HO-1 and COX2 mRNA and protein expression	[69]
	Mouse	Inhalation (w/wo i.p. LTA injection)	Microdialysis/HPLC; RT-PCR	Increased glutamate levels Inreased NMDA receptor subunits (NR1, NR2A, and NR2B), and CaMKIV mRNA	[70]
	Inhalation (nasal)		EMSA; ELISA, RT-PCR	NFκB and AP-1 activation Increased TNFα and IL-1 α levels and mRNA expression	[71]
Rat	Mice	Inhalation	Open-field test	Decreased locomotor activity	[72]
	Rat	Inhalation/Intratracheal	IBA-1 immunostaining	Microglial activation
			ELISA	Increased TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, and MIP-1α levels	[49]
			qRT-PCR	Increased TNFα, MIP-1α mRNA expression
ROFA	Rat	In instillation	TBARs	Increased lipid peroxidation	[73]
			Open-field test	Decreased exploratory behavior
NSCB	Mouse	in instillation (w/wo ip LTA injection)	RT-PCR; Microdialysis/HPLC	Increased TNFα, IL-1β, and chemokine mRNA expression; Increased glutamate glycine levels	[74]
	Rat	Inhalation (temporal)	Motor activity test; Lipid peroxidation assay; TH immunostaining	Decreased motor activity; Increased lipid peroxidation; Loss of DA neurons (SN)	[75]
	Rat (ovariectomized)	Inhalation	TH immunostaining	Loss of DA neurons (SN)	[76]
	Rat	Inhalation	Behavioral tests	Increased freezing behavior Decreased exploratory behavior	[77]
			Lipid peroxidation assay	Increased lipid peroxidation
				Neurodegeneration
			Electron microscopy; Microdialysis/HPLC	Changes in neurotransmitter levels
Ozone	Rat(ovariectomized)	Inhalation	Behavioral tests; Lipid peroxidation assay	Impaired olfactory perception and social recognition memory; Increased lipid peroxidation	[71]
	Rat	Inhalation	Behavioral tests; Lipid peroxidation assay	Impaired memory; Increased lipid peroxidation	[78]
	Rat	Inhalation	IHC	Increased VEGF, IL-6 and TNFα	[79]
	Rat	Inhalation	IHC	Increased c-Fos expression in different brain regions including NTS	[43]

Abbreviations: apolipoprotein E (ApoE), calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type IV(CaMKIV), concentrated ambient particles (CAPs), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), dopaminergic (DA), diesel exhaust particles (DEPs), electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), heme oxygenase (HO), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), allograft inflammatory factor 1(IBA1), immunohistochemistry (IHC), interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), macrophage inflammatory proteins (MIPs), nanosized carbon black (NSCB), lipoteichoic acid (LTA), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), residual oil fly ash (ROFA), reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), substantia nigra (SN), thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).