|
| NHL OR | Cases | Controls | Reference | Herbicide | Notes |
|
| 4.8 (2.9–8.1) | 41 | 24 | Hardell et al. [72] | 2,4,5-T; 2,4-D; MCPA | Chlorophenols, solvents, and other pesticides. Exposure defined as greater than one day; entirely self-reported. One documented MCPA exposure across cases; results for NHL and HD combined. Forestry. |
|
| 4.9 (1.3–18) | 6 | 6 | Persson et al. [68] | Phenoxys | Chlorophenols, solvents, and other pesticides. Variety of occupations and exposure described by occupation. Exposure to wood preservatives/creosote predicted much higher ORs; exposure to pets comparable. Only logistic model statistically significant. |
|
| 13 (1.2–360) | 3 | 1 | Hardell et al. [56] | 2,4-D only | Chlorophenols. Potential for recall bias in questionnaires used for exposure. No dose response relationship observed. Forestry. |
|
| 5.5 (2.7–11) | 25 | 24 | Hardell et al. [56] | Phenoxys (including 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and MCPA) | 2,4,5-T known to contain dioxin. No dose response relationship observed. |
|
| 2.7 (1.0–7.0) | 12 | 11 | Hardell and Eriksson [60] | Primarily MCPA | Greater than 30 year latency to achieve statistical significance. |
| 1.3 (0.7–2.3) | 43 | 62 | Hardell and Eriksson [60] | 2,4-D/2,4,5-T |
|
| 2.81 (1.27–6.22) | 21 | 9 | Eriksson et al. [71] | MCPA only overall | Questionnaire on work history; questions on exposure to pesticides, organic solvents, and other chemicals.
Numbers of years, days per year, and approximate length of exposure per day. No job-exposure matrix could be developed. One full day of exposure constituted exposure. |
| 3.76 (1.35–10.5) | 15 | 5 | Eriksson et al. [71] | MCPA < 32 days of use |
| 1.66 (0.46–5.96) | 6 | 4 | Eriksson et al. [71] | MCPA > 32 days of use |
| 2.04 (1.24–3.36) | 47 | 26 | Eriksson et al. [71] | Phenoxys overall |
| 2.83 (1.47–5.47) | 32 | 13 | Eriksson et al. [71] | Phenoxys < 45 days of use |
| 1.27 (0.59–2.70) | 15 | 13 | Eriksson et al. [71] | Phenoxys > 45 days of use |
|
| 1.3 (0.8–2.1) | 51 | 92 | Pearce et al. [73] | Primarily 2,4,5-T; MCPA not mentioned | Fencing work; employment in meat works statistically significant. “Farming” assumed to represent chlorophenoxy exposures. |
|
| 2.2 (1.2–4.1) | 24 | 78 | Hoar et al. [57] | 2,4-D (overall, not stratified) | No dose response (see below). |
|
| 2.7 (0.9–8.1) | 6 | 17 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 1-2 d/y (frequency) | Only overall analysis statistically significant; no dose response relationship. Many other exposures; use of hierarchical modeling by class (herbicides only, insecticides only, etc.). Detailed questionnaire; but elicited dates and frequency of use of any herbicide on each farm instead of dates and frequency for each specific herbicide. |
| 1.6 (0.4–5.7) | 4 | 16 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 3–5 d/y (frequency) |
| 1.9 (0.5–6.7) | 4 | 16 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 6–10 d/y (frequency) |
|
| 3.0 (0.7–11.8) | 4 | 9 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 11–20 d/y (frequency) | |
| 7.6 (1.8–32.3) | 5 | 6 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D > 21 d/y | Only overall analysis statistically significant; no dose response relationship. Many other exposures; use of hierarchical modeling by class (herbicides only, insecticides only, etc.). Detailed questionnaire; but elicited dates and frequency of use of any herbicide on each farm instead of dates and frequency for each specific herbicide. |
| 1.3 (0.3–5.1) | 3 | 16 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 1–5 yrs (duration) |
| 2.5 (0.9–6.8) | 7 | 22 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 6–15 yrs (duration) |
| 3.9 (1.4–10.9) | 8 | 15 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D 16–25 yrs (duration) |
| 2.3 (0.7–6.8) | 6 | 17 | Hoar et al. [57] | Use of 2,4-D > 26 yr (duration) | |
|
| 1.5 (0.9–2.5) | 43 | 98 | Zahm et al. [61] | 2,4-D | Lawn care professionals. |
|
| 1.07 (0.8–1.4) | NR | NR | Woods et al. [66] | Phenoxys; other compounds | Increased risks found for DDT (1.82 (1.04-3.2)) and organic solvents (1.35 (1.06-1.7)). Exposure based on job description. No dose response observed for phenoxys. |
|
| 0.68 (0.3–1.4) | 181 | 196 | Woods [65] | 2,4-D | Small but significant excess risk observed for farmers (all chemicals). Exposure poorly defined. |
| 0.71 (0.3–1.5) | 181 | 196 | Woods [65] | Any phenoxy |
|
| 1.2 (0.9–1.6) | 118 | 231 | Cantor et al. [64] | Largely 2,4-D | Statistically significant OR > 1.5 for personal handling, mixing, or application of carbaryl, chlordane, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, diazinon, dichlorvos, lindane, maialinoli, nicotine, and toxaphene. |
|
| 0.5 (0.2–1.2) | 6 | 79 | Leiss and Savitz [69] | Yard treated in last three months of pregnancy | Exposure dichotomous never exposed versus ever exposed; actual products and durations not specified.
Lymphomas considered as a category. |
| 0.8 (0.3–1.8) | 15 | 118 | Leiss and Savitz [69] | Yard treated in the two years between birth and diagnosis |
|
| 0.6 (0.4–1.0) | 10 | 98 | Leiss and Savitz [69] | Yard treated in the two years prior to diagnosis | Exposure dichotomous never exposed versus ever exposed; actual products and durations not specified. Lymphomas considered as a category. |
|
| 1.25 (0.54–2.90) | 19 | 85 | Kogevinas et al. [59] | Phenoxys | Exposure evaluated for phenoxy herbicides and chlorophenols, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and furans, raw materials, process chemicals, and chemicals used in the production of phenoxy herbicides. |
| 0.88 (0.36–2.18) | 15 | 76 | Kogevinas et al. [59] | MCPA/MCPP | Three industrial hygienists carried out questionnaire-based analysis of exposure to 21 chemicals or mixtures. Nested case-control in IARC cohort [83]. |
|
| 1.11 (0.46–2.65) | 12 | 56 | Kogevinas et al. [59] | 2,4-D/P/B | See previous/above |
|
| 1.32 (1.01–1.73) | 111 | 293 | McDuffie et al. [13] | 2,4-D | Small validation study of exposure questionnaire.
Considered many covariates and exposures. Final models did not include MCPA or 2,4-D.
Previous cancer and family history strong predictors. |
| 1.10 (0.6–2.0) | 17 | 46 | McDuffie et al. [13] | MCPA |
|
| 1.25 (0.96–1.62) | 110 | 293 | McDuffie et al. [62] | 2,4-D | Cross-Canada study. Mecoprop exposures show strongest relationship; also DEET. |
| 1.09 (0.6–1.98) | 17 | 46 | McDuffie et al. [62] | MCPA |
|
| 1.09 (0.76–1.56) | 64 | 186 | McDuffie et al. [62] | 2,4-D | Farm study. Mecoprop exposures show strongest relationship; also DEET. |
| 0.98 (0.7–1.37) | 15 | 33 | McDuffie et al. [62] | MCPA |
|
| 0.9 (0.6–1.2) | 123 | 314 | De Roos et al. [16] | 2,4-D | Pooled data from three previous case-control studies. |
| 0.9 (0.4–2.0) | 8 | 16 | De Roos et al. [16] | MCPA | Strongest associations for organophosphates, chlordane, and dieldrin. |
|
| 1.0 (0.5–2.0) | 18 | NR | Miligi et al. [58] | Chlorophenoxys and men | |
| 1.3 (0.5–3.7) | 11 | NR | Miligi et al. [58] | Chlorophenoxys and women | Crop exposure matrix for exposure based on face-to-face interview questionnaire together with pesticide usage statistics by area. |
| 0.7 (0.3–1.9) | 6 | NR | Miligi et al. [58] | 2,4-D and men |
| 1.5 (0.4–5.7) | 7 | NR | Miligi et al. [58] | 2,4-D and women |
| 1.1 (0.4–3.5) | 8 | NR | Miligi et al. [58] | MCPA and women |
| 1.1 (0.6–1.8) | 32 | 28 | Miligi et al. [58] | Chlorophenoxys overall |
| 2.4 (0.9–7.6) | 13 | 6 | Miligi et al. [58] | Chlorophenoxys without protective equipment |
| 0.9 (0.5–1.8) | 17 | 18 | Miligi et al. [87] | 2,4-D overall | |
|
| 4.4 (1.1–29.1) | 9 | 3 | Miligi et al. [87] | 2,4-D without protective equipment | |
| 0.9 (0.4–1.8) | 18 | 19 | Miligi et al. [87] | MCPA overall | Crop exposure matrix for exposure based on face-to-face interview questionnaire together with pesticide usage statistics by area. |
| 3.4 (0.8–23.2) | 7 | 3 | Miligi et al. [87] | MCPA without protective equipment | |
|
| 1.1 (0.78–1.55) | 257 | 161 | Hartge et al. [15] | 500 ng/g 2,4-D in carpet dust | |
| 0.91 (0.45–1.45) | 86 | 59 | Hartge et al. [15] | 500–999 ng/g 2,4-D in carpet dust | No dose response observed; residential exposures from tracking following yard application. Measured exposures but not concurrent. |
| 0.66 (0.45–0.98) | 165 | 162 | Hartge et al. [15] | 1000–9999 ng/g 2,4-D in carpet dust |
|
| 0.82 (0.41–1.66) | 24 | 18 | Hartge et al. [15] | >10000 ng/g 2,4-D in carpet dust | See previous/above. |
|
| 3.8 (1.85–7.81) | 60 | NR | Mills et al. [12] | 2,4-D | US farmworkers union. |
|
| 1.75 (0.42–7.38) | 3 | 5 | Fritschi et al. [67] | Chlorophenoxys | |
|
| 0.9 (0.4–1.9) | 11 | 25 | Orsi et al. [70] | Phenoxys | |
|
| 0.94 (0.67–1.33) | 49 | 187 | Hohenadel et al. [17] | 2,4-D | |
|
| 1.78 (1.27–2.5) | 63 | 133 | Hohenadel et al. [17] | 2+ phenoxys | |
|
