Cytokine and Growth Factor Activation In Vivo and In Vitro after Spinal Cord Injury

Table 2

Growth factors after SCI.

Item	Detection timeframe	Roles	Reference
NGF and NT-3	Detected 6 h AI	Neuron survival and regeneration AI	[208]
BDNF	Detected 6 h AI, increases up to 6 weeks, and decreases 12 weeks AI	(i) M2 macrophage phenotype induction; (ii) Production of several extracellular matrix proteins for tissue remodeling and repair, neurotrophic support, and axonal regeneration; (iii) Increases growth, angiogenic, and axonal guidance factors	[125, 150, 209, 210]
aFGF	Detected 1 h AI, PL 5–7 days, and remains elevated up to 14–21 days AI	(i) Potent mitogenic and chemotactic agent for vascular endothelial cells, dermal fibroblasts, and epidermal keratinocytes; (ii) Promotes Th2 cytokine and neurotrophic factor production and M2 response	[209, 211]
bFGF	Detected 1 h AI, PL at day 3, remains elevated 5–7 days, and returns to low levels 14–21 days AI	(i) Angiogenesis	[209]
TGF-β	Detected at 24 h AI	(i) Immunosuppressant; (ii) Tissue stabilization and structural preservation; (iii) Neural regeneration and repair	[212]

min: minutes; AI: after injury; PL: peak levels.