Cigarette Smoking and Adipose Tissue: The Emerging Role in Progression of Atherosclerosis

Table 1

Adipokines and their bioactive functions associated with cardiovascular diseases.

Adipokine	Bioactive functions associated with cardiovascular diseases	Reference
Leptin	Increase heart rate and elevate blood pressure level	[82]
	Increase lipolysis in skeletal muscle and adipocytes	[83]
	Increase reactive oxygen species secretion in endothelial cells, such as H2O2 and HO generation	[84]
	Facilitate cholesterol accumulation in macrophages	[85, 86]
	Promote the expression of matrix metallopeptidase-2 in VSMCs	[87]
	Act on various types of immune cells to promote the release of proinflammatory cytokines	[81, 88]
Adiponectin	Reduce tissue triglyceride content and upregulate insulin sensitivity	[89]
	Suppress endothelial cell apoptosis	[90]
	Suppress TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation to decrease the recruitment of monocytes	[91]
	Inhibit the expression of scavenger receptors-A1 of macrophages and mediate polarization toward anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype	[80, 92]
	Attenuate proliferation and migration of VSMCs	[93]
TNF-α	Downregulate insulin resistance	[94]
	Increase expression of adhesion molecules	[95]
	Induce the migration and proliferation of VSMCs	[96]
Omentin	Proangiogenic property and inhibition of vascular inflammation	[97, 98]
	Promote NO production and its vasodilating effect of vascular	[99, 100]
Resistin	Subsclinical marker of atherosclerosis	[101]
	Increase the levels of endothelin-1, VCAM-1, and CCL2	[102]
	Promote foam cell formation by the dysregulation of scavenger receptors in macrophages	[103]
A-FEBP	The major mediator of vulnerable plaque formation	[104]
	Secrete more proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and CCL2	[105]
Chemrin	Magnify the functions of adhesion molecules	[106]

VSMCs, vascular smooth muscle cells; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappa B; NO, nitro oxide; VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; CCL2, CC-chemokine ligand 2; A-FABP, adipocyte fatty acid binding protein.