Hypoxia in Obesity and Diabetes: Potential Therapeutic Effects of Hyperoxia and Nitrate

Table 2

Some adipose tissue secreted adipokines or cytokines.

Adipo/cytokines	Function	References
Adiponectin	Increases β-oxidation, insulin sensitivity via AMPK; increases glucose uptake and glucose tolerance. Decreased adiponectin is related to obesity, TNF-α upregulation, and eNOS downregulation.	[41, 42]
Sfrp5	Is increased by calorie restriction diet and has an anti-inflammatory action.	[43]
Adipolin	Is known as adipose-derived insulin-sensitizing factor, improves glucose metabolism, and decreases insulin resistance and inflammation.	[44]
Apelin	Inhibits diet-induced obesity, due to its improvement of vascular integrity. It is positively correlated with BMI, and it is upregulated by insulin in obesity.	[45–47]
PPARγ	Induces storage of lipids and adipogenesis and reduces lipotoxicity; it also regulates whole body insulin sensitivity.	[48]
Leptin	Is a cytokine-like hormone, which inhibits food intake and energy expenditure. It impairs NO-mediated component.	[49]
Resistin	Is increased in genetic- and diet-induced obesity models. It is specific for WAT and causes insulin resistance.	[50]

AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; BMI: body mass index; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase; Sfrp5: soluble (secreted) frizzled-related protein 5; WAT: white adipose tissue.