The Central Role of Biometals Maintains Oxidative Balance in the Context of Metabolic and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Table 1

Association of changes in reviewed biometal levels with the development of metabolism defects.

Biometal	Type of change +/−	Observed effects	Citation
Mg	+	↓ intracellular Ca^2+; ↑ oxidative glucose breakdown by stimulation of PDH activity	[82, 83, 94]; [82, 83]
	−	Positive correlation with obesity; ↑ oxidative stress markers; Hyperglycemia, insulin resistance; ↑ proinflammatory cytokines; ↓ function of ATP-dependent ion pumps	[74, 75]; [76, 77]; [59]; [92, 93]; [88, 191, 192, 194]
Zn	+	↓ glycemia	[103]
	−	↑ immune system reactivity; ↓ lowered antioxidant capacity via downregulation of Nrf2	[99, 100]; [36]
Cu/Mn	+	↑increased risk of T2DM; poor glycemic control	[33, 102]
Se	−	Found in prediabetic patients together with lowered Zn^2+ and Mg^2+	[33]

PDH: pyruvate dehydrogenase; Nrf2: NF-E2-related factor 2.