Cellular Stresses and Stress Responses in the Pathogenesis of Insulin Resistance

Figure 1

Insulin signaling pathways via the insulin receptor (IR) and insulin receptor substrates (IRS) [1–4, 9–12]. ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; FOXO: forkhead box O transcription factor; GLUT 4: glucose transporter 4; Grb2-SOS: growth factor receptor-bound 2- (Grb2-) son of sevenless (Sos) protein complex; GS: glycogen synthase; GSK3: glycogen synthase kinase 3; IL-6: interleukin 6; MEK: MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK kinase; mTORC 2: mammalian target of rapamycin 2; NO: nitric oxide; PDK 1: 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1; PIP₂: phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-biphosphate; PIP₃: phosphatidyl inositol 3,4,5-triphosphate; STAT-3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3.