Autophagy Dysfunction, Cellular Senescence, and Abnormal Immune-Inflammatory Responses in AMD: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Potential

Figure 2

An overview of cellular senescence. A variety of stimuli, such as oxidative stress, DNA damage, ultraviolet radiation, and telomere shortening can induce a series of reactions, including the activation of the FOXO signaling pathway, the mTOR signaling pathway, the p53-p21 signaling pathway, the p16-Rb signaling pathway, and the calcium signaling pathway, ultimately leading to cellular senescence. SNCs have several primary characteristics, such as growth arrest, apoptosis resistance, and SASP secretion.