Role of Polyphenols and Carotenoids in Endothelial Dysfunction: An Overview from Classic to Innovative Biomarkers

Figure 1

Endothelial dysfunction. Figure adapted from Di Pietro N. et al. JSM Atherosclerosis, 2016 [12]. Under oxidative condition, NO may react with O₂^- to form ONOO^-; this leads to the decrease of NO bioavailability leading to endothelial dysfunction, enhanced LDL peroxidation, and chronic vascular inflammation. This is associated with lipid accumulation in the arterial wall, an NF-κB activation that in turn triggers the upregulation of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. The increased VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 membrane exposure leads to increased adhesion and infiltration of monocytes. eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; NO: nitric oxide; O₂^-: superoxide anion; ONOO^-: peroxynitrite; cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; ox-LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule 1; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1.