Role of Polyphenols and Carotenoids in Endothelial Dysfunction: An Overview from Classic to Innovative Biomarkers

Figure 2

Classical and innovative biomarkers modulated by polyphenols and carotenoids in early endothelial dysfunction. Part of the figure is adapted from Di Pietro N et al. JSM Atherosclerosis, 2016 [12]. Both polyphenols and carotenoids have been shown to significantly reduce all the key events of early endothelial dysfunction through their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions, as described in detail in the figure text. This is proven by their ability in modulating several classic and some innovative biomarkers here summarized. Among the future innovative perspectives, integrated personal omics profiling (iPOP) will potentially allow to obtain personalized prevention and nutritional food intervention through the intricate and mutual interaction of omics technology (genome, epigenome, transcriptome, proteome, cytokines, metabolome, autoantibody-ome, and microbiome). eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; NO: nitric oxide; O₂^-: superoxide anion; ONOO^-: peroxynitrite; cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; ox-LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule 1; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; ROS: reactive oxygen species; NOX4: NADPH oxidase 4; AGEs: advanced glycation end-products; MMP9: matrix metallopeptidase 9; PECAM-1: platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule; clusters of differentiation: CD31, CD31+/41-, CD144+, CD41+, and CD14; interleukins: IL1beta, IL6, IL8, and IL12; PI3K/Akt: phosphoinositide 3-kinases/protein kinase B; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; FMD: flow-mediated dilation; RHI: reactive hyperemia index; BP: blood pressure; RH-PAT: reactive hyperemia peripheral arterial tonometry; PWV: pulse wave velocity; NOx: nitrogen oxides; sICAM-1: soluble ICAM-1; sVCAM-1: soluble VCAM1; sE-selectin: soluble E-selectin; hsCRP: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; EPCs: endothelial progenitor cells; EVs: extracellular vesicles; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase; ET-1: endothelin-1; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4.