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Dietary protein source | Enzyme used to produce peptides | Peptide sequence or molecular weight | Object | Dose & duration | Activity/mechanisms of action | Reference |
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Soy protein | Flavourzyme | <1300 Da | 3T3-L1 preadipocytes | 100 ppm for 8 d | Peptides reduced GPDH activity and inhibited adipogenesis by affecting the expression of PPAR-γ and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α | [123] |
Smooth hound (Mustelus mustelus) muscle protein | Alkaline crude enzymes from M. mustelus intestines | 200–2500 Da | Rats | 0.5 mL (10 mg/mL)/day/kg BW for 21 d | Peptides reduced BW and food intake | [5] |
Soy protein | Flavourzyme | ILL, LLL, and VHVV | 3T3-L1 adipocytes | 4 ppm for 72 h | Peptides exhibited lipolysis-stimulating activity | [52] |
Canola protein | Alcalase, chymotrypsin, pepsin trypsin, and pancreatin | <1–10 kDa | C3H10T1/2 murine mesenchymal stem cells | 60–100 μg/mL for 24 h | Peptides showed antiobesity effects by inhibiting PPARγ expression and pancreatic lipase | [54] |
Common bean | Alcalase, bromelain, and pepsin-pancreatin | <1 kDa | Mature adipocytes 3T3-L1 | 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μg/mL for 48 h | Peptides inhibited lipid accumulation (28%) | [53] |
Salmon protein | — | — | Placebo-controlled, randomized clinical study | 16 g for 42 days | Peptide supplementation for 42 days reduced the body mass index by 5.6% in overweight subjects | [59] |
Ark shell (Scapharca subcrenata) protein | Pepsin | <1 kDa | Mouse mesenchymal stem cells | 400 μg/mL for 7 d | Peptides inhibited intracellular lipid accumulation and enhanced lipolysis. Peptides inhibited adipogenesis by downregulating the adipocyte-specific protein expression including PPAR-γ, C/EBP-α, SREBP-1c, downstream lipoprotein lipase, and FAS expression | [51] |
Yellow catfish protein | Alcalase | — | HFD fed mice | 500, 250 and 125 mg/kg BW for 84 d | Peptides exhibited anti-obesity effects | [124] |
Sardinella (Sardinella aurita) protein | Bacillus subtilis A26 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens An6 | 150–900 Da | Wistar rats fed high caloric diet | 400 mg/kg BW for 10 weeks | Peptides reduced BW gain, food intake, and the relative epididymal adipose tissue and decreased the pancreatic lipase activity | [2] |
Alaska pollack protein | Pepsin and pancreatin | — | Rats | 0, 100, and 300 mg/kg BW for 3 d | Peptides reduced white adipose tissue weight and food intake | [56] |
Tuna skin | Subcritical water hydrolysis | — | 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and obese mice fed HFD | 300 mg/kg/day for 8 weeks | Peptides decreased HFD-induced BW gain and inhibited the expression of C/EBP-α, PPAR-γ and adipocyte protein 2 | [55] |
Camel whey protein | Pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin | <10 kDa | In vitro assays | 50 μL for 30 min | Peptides exhibited antiobesity effects by inhibiting pancreatic lipase and cholesteryl esterase enzymes | [125] |
Skate (Raja kenojei) skin collagen | — | 1050 Da | HFD-fed mice | 100, 200, or 300 mg/kg BW for 8 weeks | Peptides showed antiobesity effects by reducing BW gain and visceral adipose tissue and improved the dyslipidemia via regulating hepatic lipid metabolism and AMPK | [126] |
Camel milk | Alcalase, bromelin, and papain | <10 kDa | In vitro | — | Peptides inhibited the porcine pancreatic lipase | [24] |
Kefir | — | >30 kDa, 3–30 kDa, and <3 kDa | HFD-induced obese rats | 164 mg/kg BW daily for 8 weeks | Peptides blocked lipogenesis by reducing FAS and increased p-acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Peptides enhanced FA oxidation via increasing the expressions of phosphorylated AMPK, PPAR-α, and hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 | [127] |
Spirulina platensis protein | Trypsin, alcalase, pepsin, papain, and protamex | NALKCCHSCPA, LNNPSVCDCDCMMKAAR, NPVWKRK, and CANPHELPNK | 3T3-L1 preadipocytes | 1 mg/mL for 48 h | Peptides exhibited antiobesity effects by inhibiting lipase (72%) and 3T3-L1 preadipocytes (72.7–88.1%) and decreased triglyceride accumulation | [8] |
Quinoa protein | Papain, pepsin, and pancreatin | FGVSEDIAEKLQAKQDERGNIVL, AEGGLTEVWDTQDQQF, YIEQGNGISGLMIPG, AVVKQAGEEGFEW, and HGSDGNVF | 3T3-L1 cells | 0–1600 μg/mL for 48 h | Peptides inhibited lipid accumulation during differentiation and suppressed cell differentiation through PPAR-γ | [128] |
Spirulina platensis protein | Pepsin | <10 kDa | HFD-fed mice | 2 g/kg BW/d for 4 weeks | Peptides showed antiobesity effects reducing BW, lowering serum glucose, and total cholesterol through modulation of expressions of Acadm, Retn, Fabp4, Ppard, and Slc27a1 in the brain and liver | [57] |
Pea (Pisum sativum L.) seed proteins | Pepsin and pancreatin | <6 kDa | 3T3-L1 murine preadipocytes | 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6 mg/mL for 24 h | Peptides stimulated adipocyte differentiation through upregulation of PPAR-γ expression and ligand activity | [48] |
Walleye pollock skin collagen | Flavourzyme and alcalase | 500–5000 Da | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice | 800 mg/kg BW for 8 weeks | Peptides inhibited weight gain, adipocyte growth, adipose tissue accumulation, and liver weight and reduced the blood-lipid level | [58] |
Blue mussel | Pepsin | <1 kDa | Mouse mesenchymal stem cells | 100, 200, and 400 μg/mL for 7 or 21 d | Peptides enhanced lipolysis and downregulated adipogenic transcription factors including PPARγ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-α, and SREBP-1 | [10] |
Hazelnut (Corylus heterophylla Fisch) protein | Alcalase | Arg-Leu-Leu-Pro-His | 3T3-L1 adipocytes | 0, 20, 40, and 80 mM for 8 d | Peptides decreased adipogenesis by downregulating the expression of PPAR-γ, C/EBP-α, aP2, SREBP-1c, FAS, ACC1, and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase | [13] |
Milk β-casein | Trypsin | 7 kDa | HepG2 cells and humans | 5 mg/mL for 24 h | Casein oligopeptide increased FGF-21 | [129] |
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